University of North Florida
Browse the Citations
-OR-

Contact Info

Stuart Chalk, Ph.D.
Department of Chemistry
University of North Florida
Phone: 1-904-620-1938
Fax: 1-904-620-3535
Email: schalk@unf.edu
Website: @unf

View Stuart Chalk's profile on LinkedIn

Review

Classification: Application -> Review

Citations 898

"Chemiluminescence-based (bio)sensors - An Overview"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1999 Volume 29, Issue 4 Pages 323-331
Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein, Raluca-Ioana Stefan and Jacobus F. van Staden

Abstract: This review discusses the advances in the design of chemiluminescence-based sensors and biosensors with particular emphasis on their classification. Several up-to-date applications are presented.
Environmental Chemiluminescence Sensor

"Recent Developments And Applications Of Chemiluminescence Sensors"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2000 Volume 30, Issue 4 Pages 271-289
Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein, Raluca-Ioana Stefan, Jacobus F. van Staden, Xinrong R. Zhang, Ana M. Garcia-Campana and Willy R. G. Baeyens

Abstract: Chemiluminescence sensors are important tools in analytical chemistry due to their high sensitivity selectivity. This review presents the instrumentation involved in their design, including light detection and flow injection analysis system used. Various applications for the analysis of inorganic and organic compounds from gaseous samples and solutions indicate that these sensors are used with good reproducibility and selectivity of the analytes at low concentration level.
Chemiluminescence Sensor Sensor Sensor

"Stripping Voltammetry For The Determination Of Trace Metal Speciation And In-situ Measurements Of Trace Metal Distributions In Marine Waters"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1999 Volume 400, Issue 1-3 Pages 381-397
Eric P. Achterberg and Charlotte Braungardt

Abstract: Progress in marine chemistry has been driven by improved sampling and sample handling techniques, and developments in analytical chemistry. Consequently, during the last 20 years our understanding of marine trace metal biogeochemistry has improved a great deal. Stripping voltammetric techniques (anodic stripping voltammetry and adsorptive cathodic stripping voltammetry) have made an important contribution to this understanding. The selectivity and extremely low detection limits have made stripping voltammetry a widely used technique for trace metal speciation and trace metal distribution measurements in seawater. Stripping voltammetry is very suitable for ship-board and in-situ applications because of the portability, low cost and capability for automation of the voltammetric instrumentation. Future developments in stripping voltammetry can be expected in the field of stand-alone submersible voltammetric analyzer.s, capable of continuous trace metal measurements. Future applications of stripping voltammetry can be found in the interactions between trace metal speciation and growth and the functioning of organisms in pristine and metal polluted marine waters.
Metals Sea Voltammetry Electrode Electrode Chemiluminescence

"Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry For Trace Analysis Using Flow Injection On-line Preconcentration And Time-of-flight Mass Analyser"
Trends Anal. Chem. 2002 Volume 21, Issue 5 Pages 332-342
Karima Benkhedda, Heidi Goenaga Infante and Freddy C. AdamsElisaveta Ivanova

Abstract: Flow injection (M) methodologies extend the performance of atomic spectroscopic techniques particularly when on-line pre-concentration and separation procedures are involved. This article reviews some of the most relevant aspects of the coupling of FI procedures with inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), as an attractive approach to perform ultra-trace metal determinations in samples containing a high proportion of total dissolved solids. The capabilities of ICP-time-of-flight (TOF) MS as a fast transient detector for simultaneous determination of a large number of isotopes in a FI peak are also reviewed.
Metals, rare earth Biological Mass spectrometry Mass spectrometry

"Non-spectrophotometric Methods For The Determination Of Vitamin C"
Anal. Chim. Acta 2000 Volume 417, Issue 1 Pages 1-14
S. P. Arya, M. Mahajan and P. Jain

Abstract: In view of the widespread use of Vitamin C, a large number of methods have been developed for quantifying Vitamin C contents in natural and fortified food samples and pharmaceuticals. It is therefore essential to assess these methods. Accordingly, this paper reviews non-spectrophotometric methods. 277 references.
Ascorbic acid Pharmaceutical Fruit Soft drink Fluorescence LC Polarography

"Sequential Injection Analysis"
Analyst 2002 Volume 127, Issue 8 Pages 997-1020
Claire E. Lenehan, Neil W. Barnett and Simon W. Lewis

Abstract: A comprehensive review of the art of sequential injection analysis is presented

"Analytical Applications Of Tris(2,2 -bipyridyl)ruthenium(III) As A Chemiluminescent Reagent"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1999 Volume 378, Issue 1-3 Pages 1-41
Richard D. Gerardi, Neil W. Barnett and Simon W. Lewis

Abstract: This paper reviews the analytical applications of the chemiluminescence reactions involving tris(2,2-bipyridyl)ruthenium(III), from the earliest paper in 1978 to mid 1998. After an introduction which briefly describes historical perspectives, spectroscopic and mechanistic considerations, the review is divided into two major sections. The first section discusses the methods of generation of tris(2,2-bipyridyl)ruthenium(III) reagent, including chemical/photochemical, electrochemical and in situ electrochemiluminescence methods. The second section describes the applications of this reagent to analysis under broad classifications according to the type of analyte determined. Entries for indirect methods, immunoassay and DNA probe assays have also been included.
Chemiluminescence

"Analytical Applications Of Chemiluminogenic Reactions"
Anal. Chim. Acta 2000 Volume 413, Issue 1-2 Pages 175-186
Leonidas P. Palilis and Antony C. Calokerinos

Abstract: Chemiluminescence (CL) and bioluminescence (BL) are natural phenomena which have attracted the attention of mankind since the evolution of life on the earth. The various mechanisms of formation of cold light were explained during this century and CL was established as an analytical technique during the last few decades. The dramatic growth in the quality and quantity of analytical chemiluminometric methods came soon after the introduction of flow injection analysis into the area of CL and the development of successful flow cells. Hence, CL is now considered as a very sensitive analytical technique. A plethora of new chemiluminogenic reactions have been discovered by trial and error and successfully used analytically, but efforts to foresee which molecules participate in CL reactions are continuously made. Over the last few decades some general rules have been modulated and are briefly presented in this paper. A practical example is the CL generated during the action of potassium permanganate on trimetazidine (1-(2,3,4-trimethoxybenzyl)piperazine) which is presented in this paper. The discovery is important since analytical procedures for determining trimetazidine are very limited in number and new methodologies are required for assaying the drug in biological fluids. The analytical procedure which was finally developed allows the determination of trimetazidine within the linear range of 5-1000 ng mL-1. Less known CL techniques which offer great advantages over other analytical methods are also presented. The beginning of the millennium will find CL as a powerful tool for sensitive measurements after miniaturized separation systems and as field analyzer.s. Emphasis should be given to the thorough investigation of the mechanism of the reactions which generate radiation to allow full control of the capabilities of the technique.
Trimetazidine Biological fluid Chemiluminescence

"Multisyringe Flow Injection Spectrofluorimetric Determination Of Warfarin At Trace Levels With On-line Solid-phase Preconcentration"
Anal. Chim. Acta 2002 Volume 467, Issue 1-2 Pages 13-23
Graciela de Armas, Manuel Miró, José Manuel Estela and Víctor Cerdà

Abstract: Warfarin (3-(α-acetonylbenzyl)-4-hydroxycoumarin) is a widely used anticoagulant rodenticide which has strong toxic effects in humans and animals. A new multisyringe flow injection analysis (MSFIA) set-up for the spectrofluorimetric determination of warfarin in waters at trace levels is presented. Preconcentration on a solid-phase (octadecyl chemically-bonded silica-gel-based beads) without prior derivatization, and elution with dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) containing monomeric units of the cetyltrimethylammonium chloride (HTAC) surfactant resulted in a quantification limit (50 ng L-1) lower than those reported to date, reaching the levels demanded by regulatory authorities in drinking waters. Several variables such as eluent composition, sample and eluent volumes, retention and elution flow rates and sample pH were studied in detail. A mass calibration may be used to determine warfarin in the wide range from 50 ng L-1 to 64 µg L-1 for sample volumes between 0.2 and 12 mL. An enrichment factor of 155, a sample throughput of 12 hr-1 and a repeatability better than 2% were achieved by pre-concentration of 16 ng of the target compound from 2 mL of sample.
Warfarin Mineral Rain Ground Fluorescence

"Monitoring Of Environmental Parameters By Sequential Injection Analysis"
Trends Anal. Chem. 2001 Volume 20, Issue 8 Pages 407-418
V. Cerdà, A. Cerdà, A. Cladera, M. T. Oms, F. Mas, E. Gómez, F. Bauzá, M. Miró, R. Forteza and J. M. Estela

Abstract: The use of sequential injection analysis (SIA), as applied to the control of environmental parameters, is reviewed. Its advantages and drawbacks are compared with those of flow injection analysis (FIA). FIA is simpler and easier to handle, has a higher sample throughput, and may be controlled manually, but SIA is more robust and versatile and better adapted for multiparametric and stopped flow techniques. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Environmental

"Multisyringe Flow Injection Analysis: Characterization And Applications"
Trends Anal. Chem. 2002 Volume 21, Issue 3 Pages 199-210
Manuel Miró, Víctor Cerdà and José Manuel Estela

Abstract: In this paper, the new multisyringe flow injection analysis (MSFIA) technique is reviewed and contrasted with previous flow techniques. Also covered are its fundamental background and instrument evolution, together with its proposed injection modalities and various analytical applications. (C) 2002 Published by Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Iron

"Chronic Arsenic Toxicity In Bangladesh And West Bengal, India - A Review And Commentary"
Clin. Toxicol. 2001 Volume 39, Issue 7 Pages 683-700
Mohammad Mahmudur Rahman, Uttam Kumar Chowdhury, Subhash Chandra Mukherjee, Badal Kumar Mondal, Kunal Paul, Dilip Lodh, Bhajan Kumar Biswas, Chitta Ranjan Chanda, Gautam Kumar Basu, Kshitish Chandra Saha, Shibtosh Roy, Ranajit Das, Shyamal Kanti Palit, Qu

Abstract: Fifty districts of Bangladesh and 9 districts in West Bengal, India have arsenic levels in groundwater above the World Health Organizations maximum perimissible limit of 50 µg/L. The area and population of 50 districts of Bangladesh and 9 districts in West Bengal are 118,849 km(2) and 104.9 million and 38,865 km(2) and 42.7 million, respectively, Our current data show arsenic levels above 50 µg/L in 2000 villages, 178 police stations of 50 affected districts in Bangladesh and 2600 villages, 74 police stations/blocks of 9 affected districts in West Bengal. We have so far analyzed 34,000 and 101,934 hand tube-well water samples fi-om Bangladesh and West Bengal respectively by FI-HG-AAS of which 56% and 52%, respectively, contained arsenic above 10 µg/L and 37% and 25% arsenic above 50 µg/L. In our preliminary, study 18,000 persons in Bangladesh and 86,000 persons in West Bengal were clinically examined in arsenic-affected districts. Of them, 3695 (20.6% including 6.11% children) in Bangladesh and 8500 (9.8% including 1.7% children) in West Bengal had arsenical dermatological features. Symptoms of chronic arsenic toxicity developed insidiously after 6 months to 2 years or more of exposure. The time of onset depends on the concentration of arsenic in the drinking water, volume of intake, and the health and nutritional status of individuals. Major dermatological signs are diffuse or spotted melanosis, leucomelanosis, and keratosis. Chronic arsenicosis is a multisystem disorder. Apart from generalized weakness, appetite and weight loss, and anemia, our patients had symptoms relating to involvement of the lungs, gastrointestinal system, liver, spleen, genitourinary system, hemopoietic system, eyes, nervous system, and cardiovascular system. We found evidence of arsenic neuropathy in 37.3% (154 of 413 cases) in one group and 86.8% (33 of 38 cases) in another. Most of these cases had mild and predominantly sensory, neuropathy. Central nervous system involvement Was evident with and without neuropathy. Electrodiagnostic studies proved helpful for the diagnosis of neurological involvement. Advanced neglected cases with many years of exposure presented with cancer of skin and of the lung, liver, kidney, and bladder. The diagnosis of subclinical arsenicosis was made in 83%, 93%, and 95% of hair, nail and urine samples, respectively, in Bangladesh; and 57%, 83%, and 89% of hair, nail, and urine samples, respectively in West Bengal. Approximately 90% of children below 11 years of age living in the affected areas show hair and nail arsenic above the normal level. Children appear to have a higher body burden than adults despite fewer dermatological manifestations. Limited trials of 4 arsenic chelators in the treatment of chronic arsenic toxicity in West Bengal over the last 2 decades do not provide any clinical, biochemical, or histopathological benefit except for the accompanying preliminary report of clinical benefit with dimercapto-propanesulfonate therapy. Extensive efforts are needed in both countries to combat the arsenic crisis including control of tube-wells, watershed management with effective use of the prodigious supplies of surface water, traditional water management, public awareness programs, and education concerning the apparent benefits of optimal nutrition.

"Analytical Options For Control Of Acids And Bases In Hydrometallurgical Processes"
Process Control Qual. 1999 Volume 11, Issue 4 Pages 289-300
Fernando Albertús, Isel Cortés, L.-G. Danielsson and Folke Ingman

Abstract: The most common procedures for the determination of acids and bases in hydrometallurgical process liquors are reviewed and compared. Automated batch titrations, performed by stepwise addition of titrant and using Gran plots for evaluation are reliable but slow compared to flow techniques. Continuous flow titrations are grouped into three classes: Flow Injection Titration, Single Point Flow Injection Titration, and Triangle-programmed Flow Titrations. Furthermore, Sequential Injection Analysis is also considered for process applications. Each one of these methods has advantages and drawbacks. An overview of the most common application problems, and the way they are solved with each methodology, is given. The analytical characteristics of the described procedures are given as well as a guide for the choice of technique for a given application.
Industrial

"Analytical Strategies For The Detection Of Sulfide: A Review"
Talanta 2000 Volume 52, Issue 5 Pages 771-784
Nathan S. Lawrence, James Davis and Richard G. Compton

Abstract: The detection of sulfide, particularly hydrogen sulfide, has long held the attention of the analytical community and, as such, a large number of protocols have arisen. Built around a core of reactions, some of which are highly specific to sulfide, there is considerable scope for exploitation across a number of instrumental platforms. Such flexibility may provide options for alleviating Potentially intractable matrix effects through switching to an alternative detection methodology. This review details the need for sulfide measurements and describes the basis of many of the current approaches to sulfide detection. The collation of information from a broad range of sources, covering the major approaches, has been achieved and the salient points of each technique presented and critically appraised. The various peculiarities of the systems are compared and contrasted and a summary of the analytical characteristics (matrix, methodology and detection range) from each has been constructed.

"Applications Of Laccases And Tyrosinases (phenoloxidases) Immobilized On Different Supports: A Review"
Enzyme Microb. Technol. 2002 Volume 31, Issue 7 Pages 907-931
Nelson Durán, Maria A. Rosa, Alessandro D'Annibale and Liliana Gianfred

Abstract: This review summarizes all the research efforts that have been spent to immobilize laccase and tyrosinase for various applications, including synthetic and analytical purposes, bioremediation, wastewater treatment, and must and wine stabilization. All immobilization procedures used in these areas are discussed. Considerations on the efficacy of immobilized copper oxidases and products, in addition to their kinetic parameters are also discussed. The available data indicate that the immobilization of laccase into cationic polymer cross-linked with epichlorohydrin appears to be a promising procedure for industrial applications. The development of laccase and tyrosinase-based biosensors to monitor a wide range of compounds appears to be at a mature stage of technology. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

"Flow Injection Analysis Of Pharmaceuticals"
J. Anal. Chem. 2001 Volume 56, Issue 4 Pages 313-323
M. I. Evgen'ev, S. Yu. Garmonov, L. Sh. Shakirova

Abstract: The current state and outlooks of the development of the fow-injection analysis of medicinal substances in pharmaceuticals and biological fluids are considered. The role of chemical, photochemical and enzymatic reactions of derivatization in the flow injection determination of pharmaceuticals is outlined. The role of detection methods in improving the selectivity and sensitivity of the flow injection analysis of pharmaceuticals and expanding its possibilities in pharmaceutical analysis is considered.
Drugs Biological fluid Pharmaceutical Chemiluminescence Amperometry Fluorescence

"Trends Of Flow Injection Sample Pretreatment Approaching The New Millennium"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1999 Volume 400, Issue 1-3 Pages 233-247
Zhao-Lun Fang

Abstract: The important role of flow injection (FI) techniques for the automation, acceleration and miniaturization of solution handling in sample pretreatment as well as some recent trends in the development of the field are discussed, illustrated mainly by recent achievements in the authors laboratory, including: (a) sample pretreatment for vapor generation and electrothermal AAS based on sequential injection (SI) techniques, with low reagent consumption and enhanced ruggedness; (b) combination of FI and SI sample pretreatment (filtration, dialysis, gas diffusion, column sorption) with capillary electrophoresis (CE) giving enhanced reproducibility and efficiency; (c) application of online microdialysis in in vivo monitoring of blood glucose in test animals and (d) application of online microdialysis and solvent extraction in continuous monitoring of drug dissolution processes with high resolution of process events. Future perspectives of FI sample pretreatment are discussed, emphasizing the improvement in ruggedness of the equipment and methods, the combination and synchronization of different means for liquid propulsion, and the development of miniaturized systems.
Spectrophotometry Electrophoresis

"Principles And Recent Analytical Applications Of Chemiluminescence"
Analusis 2000 Volume 28, Issue 8 Pages 686-698
A.M. García-Campaña and W.R.G. Baeyens

Abstract: The potentials and possibilities offered by the rather unknown chemiluminescence-based analytical technique are discussed. Simplicity of instrumentation, low detection limits for various systems, and the inherent power of application to a vast number of natively fluorescing species or fluorophores formed after chemical derivatization broaden the scope of this relatively new detection technique. Drawbacks should be mentioned as well, amongst others limited selectivity of analysis (unless coupled to a powerful separational set-up), unexpected poor sensitivities for various analytes and the need to include an extra reaction step in the analytical procedures. Apart from the earlier gas-phase applications, the analysis in flowing streams (flow injection analysis, HPLC, and even capillary electrophoresis) has increased exponentially starting back in the early eighties. Various reagents have become available, including some originating from bioluminescent reactions (e.g. for ATP- and related analysis), not to forget the light emission as produced by diverse oxidation reactions, many of which the exact chemical pathways are not elucidated yet. On top of this, the power of chemiluminescence induction and measurements as applied to immunoassays, in the development of sensors, and, even more important, in the fast developing area of micromachining (sub-droplet-sized capillary electrophoresis) are discussed.
Chemiluminescence

"Recent Trends In The Application Of Microdialysis In Bioprocesses"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1999 Volume 379, Issue 3 Pages 281-305
Nelson Torto, Thomas Laurell, Lo Gorton and György Marko-Varga

Abstract: This review presents the recent and possible future development trends in the application of microdialysis in biotechnological processes. Microdialysis is compared to other sampling strategies for bioprocess monitoring. An analysis of the microdialysis experiment, different probe designs, membrane characteristics and performance as reflected by the extraction fraction and the application to different bioprocesses is given.
Biological Amperometry

"Chromatographic And Electrophoretic Separation Of Inorganic Sulfur And Sulfur-oxygen Species"
Anal. Chim. Acta 2001 Volume 432, Issue 2 Pages 165-192
John W. O'Reilly, Greg W. Dicinoski, Matthew J. Shaw and Paul R. Haddad

Abstract: A review is presented of the use of chromatographic and electrophoretic methods for the separation of inorganic sulfur species in aqueous matrices, with particular emphasis on ion chromatographic methods. The species considered are elemental sulfur, sulfide, polysulfides (S-x(2-)), sulfite, sulfate, thiosulfate, dithionate, polythionates (SxO62-) and metal-thiosulfate complexes. A brief introduction to sulfur anion chemistry is given, followed by a discussion of the separation and determination of sulfur species using ion chromatography, capillary electrophoresis and other separation-based techniques. Difficulties inherent in the analysis of complex sulfur anion mixtures are indicated and the procedures that have been used to overcome these difficulties are also examined.

"Speciation Of Tin, Lead, Mercury, Arsenic And Selenium Compounds By Capillary Electrophoresis"
Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 2001 Volume 81, Issue 3 Pages 161-205
Baoguo Sun; Miroslav Macka; Paul R. Haddad

Abstract: Capillary electrophoresis (CE) methods published over the period 1992-2000 for the speciation of tin, lead, mercury, selenium and arsenic are reviewed, with emphasis on the determination of the metallorganic species. Analytical conditions and detection techniques suitable for the determination of these species are discussed. The electrolytes covered by the review include both nonmicellar and micellar solutions. Although direct UV detection is still the predominant detection method for speciation by capillary electrophoresis, ICPMS has been gaining in significance because of its sensitivity and selectivity in elemental analysis. Further, ways of increasing the concentration sensitivity are outlined and discussed. Apart from the use of more sensitive detectors, this can be accomplished either by derivatization of the analytes to form highly absorbing or fluorescent species or thorough leading a higher total amount of the analytes into the capillary. The latter aim can be achieved by pre-concentration using solid-phase extraction (SPE), or using various on-capillary stacking methods. Finally, an overview of applications to speciation analysis is presented, organized according to the particular element being determined.

"FTICR-Mass Spectrometry For High-resolution Analysis In Combinatorial Chemistry"
Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2000 Volume 71, Issue 2 Pages 149-161
Dietmar G. Schmid, Philipp Grosche, Holger Bandel, Günther Jung

Abstract: The diversity of compound collections required for finding lead structures in pharmaceutical research can be provided by means of combinatorial organic chemistry. The resultant enormous number of single compounds but also of compound mixtures represents a challenge for the analyst. With the introduction of Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR-MS or FT-MS), a new and, as yet, not widespread mass spectrometric technique (a means of analysis of such compound libraries with a very high mass resolution) high mass accuracy and high sensitivity has become available. Moreover, in combination with electrospray ionization (ESI), not only high-th rough put measurements via flow injection analysis (FIA) but also coupling with separation techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) or capillary electrophoresis (CE) is possible. Structural verification by way of decomposing ions (MSn; n greater than or equal to 2) using a variety of different dissociation techniques can be performed by FTICR-MS. This is the first review specifically covering applications of FTICR-MS in the field of combinatorial chemistry.

"Analytical Study Of The Reaction Of Phenothiazines With Some Oxidants, Metal Ions, And Organic Substances (review Article)"
J. Trace Microprobe Tech. 2001 Volume 19, Issue 1 Pages 45-70
Anatol Kojlo, Joanna Karpinska, Ludmila Kuzmicka, Wieslawa Misiuk, Helena Puzanowska-Tarasiewicz, Mikolaj Tarasiewicz

Abstract: Phenothiazines substituted in the 2 and 10 positions exhibit many valuable analytical properties. They are easily oxidized in acidic medium with a number of oxidants, e.g., K2Cr2O7. NH4VO3, Ce(SO4)(2), KBrO3, KIO3, KIO4, NaNO2, H2O2. and chloramine T, with the formation of colored oxidation products. This property enable certain phenothiazines to be used as redox indicators for the determination of Fe(II), Sn(II), U(IV), Mo(V), ascorbic acid, etc. Oxidation reactions of phenothiazines were also used for their determination by spectrophotometric and flow injection methods. Some ions, such as iron, vanadium, iodide, or nitrite have a catalytic effect on the oxidation of phenothiazines. Owing to these properties several catalytic methods for the determination of metals, iodide, and nitrite have been proposed. Phenothiazines react in acidic media with platinum metals, e.g., Pd(II), Ru(III), and Pt(IV), the formation of colored complexes. They also react with thiocyanate anionic complexes of metals, e.g., Co(II), Pd(II), Fe(III), BI(III), Cr(III), Ti(IV), Nb(V), Mo(V), and U(VI). Some organic substances (e.g., picric acid, flavianic acid, alizarin S, titan yellow, brillant blue, pyrocatechol violet) form with phenothiazines colored ion-association compounds sparingly soluble in water. These complexes are the basis for an extractive spectrophotometic determination of some metals or phenothiazines.

"Application Of Bioluminescence And Chemiluminescence In Biomedical Sciences"
Methods Enzymol. 2000 Volume 305, Issue 1 Pages 333-345
Larry J. Kricka

Abstract: A review discussing applications in lab. medicine, biomedical research, immunoassay and blotting, reporter-gene-based assays, cellular chemiluminescence and luminol- and lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence, and therapeutics. 135 references.
Cells Cell Chemiluminescence

"Chemiluminescence As A Diagnostic Tool. A Review"
Talanta 2000 Volume 51, Issue 3 Pages 415-439
C. Dodeigne, L. Thunus and R. Lejeune

Abstract: The principles of chemiluminescence and its applications as a diagnostic tool are reviewed. After an introduction to the theoretical aspects of luminescence and energy transfer, the different classes of chemiluminogenic labels including luminol, acridinium compounds, coelenterazine and analogues, dioxetanes, systems based on peroxyoxalic acid and their derivatives are described emphasizing the molecules which best fulfil the requirements of todays clinical chemistry. Applications of chemiluminescence and enhanced chemiluminescence to immunoassays, receptor assays, DNA probes, biosensors and oxygen metabolism are discussed as well as the role of enzymes in the selectivity and the sensitivity of these reactions.
Chemiluminescence

"Analytical Applications Of Chemically Modified Electrodes"
Rev. Roum. Chim. 2001 Volume 46, Issue 6 Pages 555-565
Totir, N.;Luca, C.;Lupu, S.;Lete, C.;Ion, A.C.;Ion, I.

Abstract: Several analytical applications of chemically modified electrodes are discussed. The general methods for the preparation of chemically modified electrodes are presented and their main advantages are emphasised. Analytical applications of chemically modified electrodes are discussed regarding detection limits, chemical interferences, linear response, sensitivity and selectivity.

"Towards The Most Rational Use Of Robotics Within The Overall Analytical Process"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1999 Volume 384, Issue 2 Pages 117-125
M. D. Luque de Castro and A. Velasco-arjona

Abstract: An overview is presented in which the use of robots in the analytical field is critically considered. Monotask use of robotics and the implementation of robotics sample pretreatment are discussed, as well as the overall robotics development of the analytical process as compared with the joint use of robotics and flow injection in an integrated fashion (an example of hybridisation of discontinuous and continuous approaches).

"Analytical Pervaporation: An Advantageous Alternative To Headspace And Purge-and-trap Techniques"
Chromatographia 2000 Volume 52, Issue 5-6 Pages 265-272
M. D. Luque de Castro and L. Gámiz-Gracia

Abstract: An overview of the principles and general applications of analytical pervaporation is presented. The different designs of both the analytical pervaporation module and the continuous manifolds to which the pervaporator is connected are discussed. The versatility of this non-chromatographic continuous separation technique for circumventing some of the shortcomings encountered in the automation of the overall analytical process is shown. Examples of methods developed for samples (both liquid and solid) in the environmental, food and beverage, and clinical and pharmaceutical fields are shown. The potential of pervaporation as an alternative to static and dynamic well-established approaches such as headspace and purge-and-trap sampling prior to gas-chromatographic separation is demonstrated. Examples of this approach involving both solid and liquid samples are discussed.
Environmental Food Pharmaceutical Wine Spectrophotometry

"Development Of Sensors Based On Conducting Organic Polymer Electrodes"
Proc. Electrochem. Soc. 1999 Volume 23, Issue 1 Pages 104-112
Mark, H.B., Jr.;Rubinson, J.F.

Abstract: A review with 48 references. Electrodes modified by the electrodeposition of conducting organic polymers such as poly(3-methylthiophene), polypyrrole, polyaniline and polyphenylene exhibit remarkable electrocatalysis of the oxidation of catechol, catecholamine neurotransmitters, and other organic molecules of biological importance. Also, these organic electrode surfaces do not exhibit the fouling problems always observed on traditional metal and carbon electrodes. The electrocatalytic characteristics of these polymer electrodes were used to design amperometric detectors for the flow injection analysis (FIA) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) determination of such species. The same electrodes can be employed in a potentiometric mode for the FIA and HPLC determination of inorganic and organic anions which are themselves electroinactive.

"Functionalized Cellulose Sorbents For Preconcentration Of Trace Metals In Environmental Analysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1999 Volume 29, Issue 4 Pages 313-321
Krystyna Pyrzyñska and Marek Trojanowicz

Abstract: Regardless the progress in detectability of various instrumentation for trace metal determination, the pre-concentration steps are very often needed for the analysis of environmental samples. Among the different techniques that can be used for this purpose, solid-phase extraction using various sorbents has been developed very intensively in recent years. Besides pre-concentration, it can also be used for matrix removal necessary in some procedures or for the speciation of trace elements. This review is based on 42 literature references and shows favorable properties of cellulose sorbents for this purpose. Depending on the functional groups attached, the sorbent can be directly used for sorption of target analytes or can be loaded with ligands specifically binding certain species. Applications are reviewed for conventional batch procedures, flow injection sample processing, and speciation of certain trace elements.
Metals, trace Environmental Spectrophotometry Mass spectrometry Spectrophotometry

"Flow Injection Speciation Of Aluminum"
Water Res. 2000 Volume 34, Issue 2 Pages 359-365
Krystyna Pyrzynska, Seref Guçer and Ewa Bulska

Abstract: This review discusses recent trends in chemical speciation of aluminum in natural waters. Several difficulties which arise from the complexity of aluminum species present in natural samples as well as its participation in dynamic equilibrium are highlights. Taking this into account various approaches for speciation of Al described in the literature are critically evaluated. The strategy of fractionation procedures based on the rate of reaction, sorption efficiency, chromatographic behavior of the aluminum compounds or size of the molecules are described in the paper. Besides conventional procedures involving various measuring and separation techniques, a special emphasis is focused on mechanised flow injection methodologies. This was found to be very important in order to ensure precise control of the reaction time. which is essential in aluminum species equilibrium system. The analytical performance of several separation procedures based on flow injection approaches as well as the detection methods are discussed and compared.
Aluminum, labile Aluminum, reactive Aluminum, bound Environmental HPLC Spectrophotometry

"Solid Phase Reactors In Flow Injection Analysis"
Chem. Listy 2001 Volume 95, Issue 3 Pages 150-156
D. Satinsky and R. Karlicek

Abstract: The review deals with the principles and practical applications of the use of the solid phase reactors in FIA (flow injection analysis) techniques. The article is confined to the advances in the development of the analysis of samples in the flow systems, mainly on-line preparation (derivatization, separation and pre-concentration) of samples inside the flow injection manifold. The article involves 82 references covering the period from 1985 to 1999.

"Electrochemical Sensor Arrays"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1999 Volume 29, Issue 2 Pages 133-153
Raluca-Ioana Stefan, Jacobus F. Van Staden and Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein

Abstract: The importance of sensor arrays in environmental, food and clinical analysis is discussed. The possible designs of sensor arrays is shown. The most reliable mathematical models for data processing are presented. The importance of different types of electrochemical sensor arrays in analytical chemistry as well as their performances are shown.
Environmental Food Biological Sensor Electrochemical analysis

"Carbon Paste Electrodes In Modern Electroanalysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2001 Volume 31, Issue 4 Pages 311-345
Ivan Švancara, Karel Vytřas, Jiří Barek, Jiří Zima

Abstract: Recent trends and advances in the electrochemistry with both unmodified and modified carbon paste electrodes are reviewed (247 refs.). Present day knowledge of their basic physico-chemical properties and characteristics is surveyed, including some specifics important in electrochemical measurements. Special attention is paid to the possibilities of carbon paste-based electrodes in electrochemical investigations and in modem electroanalysis of inorganic ions or molecules, organic substances, biologically important compounds, and pharmaceuticals.
Electrode Amperometry Voltammetry

"Analysis Of Surfactants: Part I"
J. Surfactants Deterg. 2000 Volume 3, Issue 4 Pages 539-552
John J. Morelli and Gerald Szajer

Abstract: We present a comprehensive review of the literature devoted to the analysis of surfactants. The period covered is 1995 through 1998. We address patents, reviews, books, journal articles, and any conference proceedings abstracted by Chemical Abstract Services. We consider classical, instrumental, and state-of-the-art analytical applications, including those not in common practice but in a developmental stage. We also include analytical techniques that make use of surfactants for improved performance, although such treatment is not comprehensive. Literature from foreign language sources is covered as completely as practical.

"Microelectrode Arrays With Interacting Diffusion Layers: Special Applications"
Chem. Listy 2001 Volume 95, Issue 1 Pages 18-21
P. Tomcik, D. Bustin and I. Novotny

Abstract: The review deals with special applications of interdigitated array (IDA) microelectrodes. A high collection efficiency in comparison with RRDE (rotatory ring disc electrode) can be used for the determination of species by titration in the diffusion layer of an IDA system. The titrant (iodine, bromine, and hypobromite) is galvanostatically generated on one IDA segment and another segment serves as an amperometric detector with constant potential, which corresponds to the opposite reaction to that of titrant electrochemical generation. The method is simple, sensitive to the species (ammonium, arsenic, thiosulfate. allyl alcohol, iodide) and can also be used in microanalysis.

"Flow Injection-hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometric Determination Of Se(VI) And Se(IV): Utility Of A Conventionally Heated Water Bath For The On-line Reduction Of Se(VI)"
Anal. Chim. Acta 2000 Volume 408, Issue 1-2 Pages 191-197
Jorge Stripeikis, Pablo Costa, Mabel Tudino and Osvaldo Troccoli

Abstract: A simple how injection manifold coupled to a hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometer has been designed for Se(VI) and Se(IV) determination. On-line reduction of Se(VI) is performed by passing the sample, in 6.8 M hydrochloric acid, through a conventionally heated water bath. Complete conversion into Se(IV) is achieved in about 1 min. Conventional on-line heating has proved to be a good alternative for the fast conversion of Se(VI) into Se(IV). Its performance, in comparison to microwave heating, is discussed. Reaction kinetic parameters have been obtained via on-line experiments for the first time. A comparison with those values already reported is also presented. A limit of detection of 0.05 ng mL-1 (n = 10, 3 s) is obtained for both forms, with a precision (relative standard deviation, n = 10, 3 s) better than 3%. The sample throughput is 60 samples/h, better than other flow injection systems reported up to date.
Selenium(IV) Selenium(VI) Spectrophotometry

"Inositol Phosphates In The Environment"
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 2002 Volume 357, Issue 1420 Pages 449-469
Benjamin L. Turner, Michael J. Papházy, Philip M. Haygarth and Ian D. McKelvie

Abstract: The inositol phosphates are a group of organic phosphorus compounds found widely in the natural environment, but that represent the greatest gap in our understanding of the global phosphorus cycle. They exist as inositols in various states of phosphorylation (bound to between one and six phosphate groups) and isomeric forms (e.g. myo, D-chiro, scyllo, neo), although myo-inositol hexakisphosphate is by far the most prevalent form in nature. In terrestrial environments, inositol phosphates are principally derived from plants and accumulate in soils to become the dominant class of organic phosphorus compounds. Inositol phosphates are also present in large amounts in aquatic environments, where they may contribute to eutrophication. Despite the prevalence of inositol phosphates in the environment, their cycling, mobility and bioavailability are poorly understood. This is largely related to analytical difficulties associated with the extraction, separation and detection of inositol phosphates in environmental samples. This review summarizes the current knowledge of inositol phosphates in the environment and the analytical techniques currently available for their detection in environmental samples. Recent advances in technology, such as the development of suitable chromatographic and capillary electrophoresis separation techniques, should help to elucidate some of the more pertinent questions regarding inositol phosphates in the natural environment.

"Development Of Food Analytical Systems Based On The Use Of Immobilized Biocatalysts"
Bunseki Kagaku 1999 Volume 48, Issue 2 Pages 183-191
Hiroyuki Ukeda

Abstract: A convenient and rapid analytical system for food components responsible for food quality was developed based on the use of immobilized enzymes and microorganisms. First, an analytical system for superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was constructed using the combination of an immobilized enzyme with flow-injection analysis (FIA). In this system, the immobilized xanthine oxidase played the role of a generator of superoxide anion; the sampling frequency was about 30 samples/h. Next, a novel analytical format was proposed involving a combination of immobilized enzymes with a 96-well microtiter plate. An alternate and repeated deposition of avidin and biotinylated enzyme was useful for enzyme immobilization with high activity and stability. Immobilized glucose oxidase under the optimized conditions was applicable to glucose determination, and the activity was retained during storage for 6 months and 50 successive determinations. The ability of microorganisms to recognize a given group of substances is useful for exploiting novel analytes. An example was indicated by the development of a rapid and convenient analytical system for short-chain fatty acids using immobilized Arthrobacter nicotiana-FIA. A sample throughput of 20 samples/h was achieved, and the obtained response showed a linear correlation with the total concentration of C-4:0 to C-12:0. The response was also partly related to the somatic cell count in raw-milk samples (n = 150), suggesting that the system should be applicable to detecting mastitis milk. The application of immobilized Psuedomonas putida to the determination of organic acids in wine is also described, in which the relationship between the specificity and the carbon sources used in the growth medium was investigated.
Glucose

"Sample Preparation Procedures For Total Mercury Determination In Materials Of Natural Origin"
Chem. Anal. 2000 Volume 45, Issue 3 Pages 325-339
E. Wieteska and A. Ziolek

Abstract: The interest in mercury determination in materials of natural origin is closely connected with the toxicity of this element as well as its organic and inorganic compounds. The main difficulties in the analysis of diverse samples result from high volatility of mercury itself and its compounds; however some of them are very stable. Hence the stage at which the analyte is being quantitatively transferred to a solution in an appropriate form without loss is very important. There are many papers devoted to the research into this problem. This paper presents the methods recommended by various authors and the main problems of chemical pretreatment of natural materials for the purpose of mercury determination are discussed. An account of the influence of different components of an analytical sample solution on the results of mercury determination by cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry is given.

"Fiber Optic Chemical Sensors And Biosensors"
Anal. Chem. 2000 Volume 72, Issue 12 Pages 81R-89R
Otto S. Wolfbeis

Abstract: A review with many references. This review is divided into sections on books and reviews (A), on specific sensors for gases and vapors (B), ions (C), and organic species (D), respectively, followed by sections on biosensors (E) and by chapters on application-oriented sensor types (F), sensing schemes (G), and sensor materials (H), respectively

"A Protocol For High-throughput Drug Mixture Quantitation: Fast LC-MS Or Flow Injection Analysis-MS?"
LC-GC 2001 Volume 19, Issue 1 Pages 60-72
Kate Yu and Michael Balogh

Abstract: The authors compare fast LC-MS with a flow injection analysis-MS method for effective quantitation in the high-throughput environment of today's drug discovery laboratories.
Drugs Pharmaceutical Mass spectrometry

"Sequential Injection Analysis And Its Applications"
Fenxi Kexue Xuebao 1999 Volume 15, Issue 1 Pages 70-78
Xue Zhuliu, Zhao Lunfang

Abstract: A review on sequential injection analysis with its applications was given with 72 refs.

"Chemiluminescence Flow Injection Immunoassays"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2001 Volume 31, Issue 3 Pages 167-174
Gerald Gübitz, Martin G. Schmid, Hossein Silviaeh and Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein

Abstract: The state of art in chemiluminescence flow injection immunoassays is reviewed. Different approaches and manifolds are described. Advantages of chemiluminescence flow injection immunoassays, which are discussed in detail, are speed, selectivity, and sensitivity. The major benefit of such systems is the simple and economical set up, which is easily adapted to automation.
Chemiluminescence Immunoassay

"Flow Injection Methods Of Analysis For Waters. I. Inorganic Species"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2001 Volume 31, Issue 3 Pages 191-222
Andrei. F. Danet, Mihaela Cheregi, Jose Martinez Calatayud, Jose Vicente Garcia Mateo and Hassan Y. Aboul Enein

Abstract: A comprehensive, critical, and an updated review of the applications of flow-injection analysis (FIA) techniques for the analysis of inorganic cations and anions in several types of water samples except marine waters is presented. The pre-concentration of metals in water samples and automaton of FIA systems for monitoring water quality are also discussed. The review is documented with 280 references.
Environmental

"Flow Injection Analysis. 10. Theory, Techniques And Trends"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1978 Volume 99, Issue 1 Pages 37-76
J. Rika and E. H. Hansen

Abstract: The dispersion of sample zones in flow injection systems is described by analogy with the mixing of fluids in large-scale chemical reactors. This comparison has resulted in a definition of the sample zone dispersion, its math. description, and the identification of the main parameters which can be used to effect the desired degree of mixing. The miniaturized flow injection system, designed with the aid of the rules derived on the basis of the theory of dispersion, uses only 5-30 µL sample solution and gives the anal. readout within 5-30 s after sample injection. The most recent flow injection methods, such as pH measurements at limited dispersion, voltammetry (including anodic stripping at trace levels), solvent extraction, and a new approach to enzymatic assays, are briefly reviewed to illustrate the trends towards future developments in continuous anal. in unsegmented streams. 51 Refs.
Metals Ascorbic acid Glucose pH Voltammetry Sample preparation

"Injection Techniques In Dynamic Flow-through Analysis With Electroanalytical Sensors"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1979 Volume 109, Issue 1 Pages 1-24
Ern Pungor, Zsófia Fehér, Géza Nagy, Klára Tóth, György Horvai and Miklós Gratzl

Abstract: The theoretical and practical aspects of injection techniques used in flow-through systems with ion-selective electrodes and voltammetric detectors are discussed. Mathematical descriptions of the measuring systems based on the use of mixing chambers in the analytical channel are briefly outlined. The effects of different parameters on the analytical signals are described theoretically and experimentally. The methods developed for the evaluation of the analytical signals are presented in detail.
Electrode Electrode Voltammetry Sensor

"Continuous-flow Analysis: Present And Future"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1980 Volume 114, Issue 1 Pages 3-18
L. R. Snyder

Abstract: The present and probable future performance of continuous-flow analysis is discussed in terms of design considerations and new analytical modules. Comparison of throughput rates and reagent/sample consumption with the competitive technique of flow-injection analysis shows that the latter is better suited for very simple processing schemes that require only a small dwell time (e.g., 5 s or less) within the flow system. For more complicated manipulation of sample and/or longer reaction times, continuous flow analysis generally has a substantial advantage with respect to analysis rate, reagent consumption and required sample size.

"Flow Injection Analysis. Principles, Applications And Trends"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1980 Volume 114, Issue 1 Pages 19-44
J. Rika and Elo H. Hansen

Abstract: The basic principles of Flow Injection Analysis are outlined. The parameters governing the dispersion of the injected sample zone in the system are discussed, and it is demonstrated how these parameters can be manipulated in order to suit the requirements of an individual analytical procedure. A number of examples illustrating the practical application of f.i.a. are described, comprising the use of automated, stopped-flow, merging-zones, extraction techniques as well as f.i.a. scanning and methods based on intermittent pumping. Updated lists on f.i.a. procedures published and species that can be determined by f.i.a. are included.
Nitrate Nitrite Urea Sample preparation

"Application Of Electro-analytical Detectors In Continuous-flow Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1980 Volume 114, Issue 1 Pages 45-58
Klára Tóth, Géza Nagy, Zsófia Fehér, György Horvai and Ernõ Pungor

Abstract: A survey is given of the different fields of application of flow-through techniques employing electroanalytical detectors. Emphasis is placed on recently developed titration techniques.
Electrochemical analysis

"Characterization And Design Of Liquid Phase Flow-through Detector Systems"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1980 Volume 114, Issue 1 Pages 59-70
H. Poppe

Abstract: Characterization of liquid phase flow-through detection systems as used in column liquid chromatography and flow injection analysis is discussed. Linear range, selectivity, peak broadening and detection limit are the most important characteristics. Peak broadening is treated with the aid of the concepts of systems analysis. The total peak broadening effect is given as the sum of contributions from connecting tubes or reactors, measuring volume and time constants in electronics and transducers. The influence of noise and signal frequency content on the precision of analytical results is treated qualitatively. The detection limit of a flow-through detection system is defined, taking these effects into account qualitatively. These characteristics are related to the performance of the whole analytical system with regard to concentration detection limit, absolute detection limit and maximum sample frequency.
LC Electrode

"Limitation Of Linear Response In Flow Injection Systems With Ion-selective Electrodes"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1982 Volume 138, Issue 1 Pages 71-79
Marek Trojanowicz and Wojciech Matuszewski

Abstract: The lower limit of linear response in flow-injection systems employing membrane and second-kind ion-selective electrodes as detectors depends on the dispersion in the system and is usually much worse than in batch measurements. Below a certain value of the peak height, linearity of the electrode response is not maintained. The limiting value depends on the process causing the loss of linear response (solubility of the electrode material, contamination, or adsorption at the electrode surface), and varies from 15 to 70 mV. Chloride- iodide-, fluoride- and copper(II)-selective electrodes are discussed.
Copper(II) Chloride Fluoride Electrode

"Controlled Anodic Generation Of The Catalyst In Kinetic Continuous-flow Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1982 Volume 139, Issue 1 Pages 207-217
Herbert Weisz and Günter Fritz

Abstract: Controlled anodic dissolution of copper in a separate generator cell yields well-defined concentrations of catalyst, depending on the voltage applied. This adjustable generation of copper catalyst makes it possible to determine iron over a wide range of concentration (10-1500 g Fe3+ mL-1) via the iron(III)-thiosulphate reaction. By the copper(II)-catalyzed hydrogen peroxide-hydroquinone reaction, EDTA can be determined as an inhibitor (0.5-5 g mL-1) and cadmium(II) as a reactivator (1-10 g mL-1). As zinc(II) forms complexes with 2,2'-bipyridine, which activates copper in this reaction, it can be determined (5-50 g Zn2+ mL-1) by measuring the decrease in activation. The electrogeneration of silver ion as a catalyst is also described. The sulphanilic acid-peroxodisulphate reaction is catalyzed by silver(I), which is again activated by 2,2'-bipyridine. Zinc(II) can be determined (0.29-2.9 mg Zn2+ mL-1) by the same principle as in the copper(II)-catalyzed reaction.
Iron EDTA Cadmium Potentiometry

"A Flow Injection System For Measurement Of Chemical Response Time Of Microelectrodes"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1982 Volume 144, Issue 1 Pages 115-121
A. Haemmerli and J. Janata, H. M. Brown

Abstract: A system for the measurement of the chemical response time (response to a rapid change in ionic activity) of ion-selective microelectrodes is described. The system is based on the flow injection technique. Results are presented for microchloride and potassium ion-selective field effect transistors. It is shown that these devices are sufficiently fast to study transient intracellular processes occurring on a time scale of a few seconds.
Potassium Chlorine Electrode Field effect transistor Electrode Potentiometry

"Optimal Speed As A Function Of System Performance For Continuous-flow Analysers"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1983 Volume 145, Issue 1 Pages 51-58
Svetla Angelova, H. W. Holy

Abstract: The limitation to high rates of sample throughput with continuous flow automated analyzers is unacceptably high sample-to-sample carry-over. Previous programs for carry-over correction have involved relatively large computer capacities. Here, the simple expression derived for carry-over can be easily programmed in BASIC for a Commodore PET operating in real time. The program includes peak picking and calculation of the calibration graph and sample concentrations. At 240 samples per hour, the results obtained for total protein (linear calibration graph) and haptoglobin (non-linear calibration plot) showed acceptable precision and recovery and correlated well with the same determination conducted at normal operating speeds. Standard Auto Analyzer equipment was used throughout. A parameter which monitors the instrument function is also calculated; this replaces the conventional visual examination of the curve for function monitoring. At high sample rates with degraded curves, visual curve examination is not effective.
Protein, total Haptoglobin Blood Serum

"The Bio-analytical Potential Of Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1983 Volume 145, Issue 1 Pages 117-124
P. J. Worsfold

Abstract: The suitability of flow injection analysis for the study of biochemically specific interaction is discussed. The possibilities are illustrated by the analytical performance of two particular systems: a manifold incorporating an immobilized glucose oxidase coil for the determination of β-D-glucose in blood and a stopped-flow manifold used to monitor a model immunoprecipitin interaction between concanavalin A and yeast mannan.
d-Glucose Blood Biochemical analysis Clinical analysis Spectrophotometry

"Flow Injection Calibration Methods For Atomic Absorption Spectrometry"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1983 Volume 145, Issue 1 Pages 159-168
J. F. Tyson, J. M. H. Appleton and A. B. Idris

Abstract: The use of an atomic absorption spectrometer as a detector in flow injection analysis is briefly reviewed. A new simplified model is described for the dispersion effects observed with such systems; the model is based on considering the dispersion to be due to a single hypothetical mixing chamber located immediately prior to the measurement stage. The utility of this approach is demonstrated for two methods of calibration commonly used in atomic absorption spectrometry, and it is shown that flow injection sample and standard handling techniques are comparable to manipulation with volumetric apparatus. The flow injection method has a number of advantages for the analogue of the standard addition method. The use of an exponential concentration gradient is proposed as a novel method of calibration using a single concentrated standard. Results are presented for the determination of chromium in standard steels.
Chromium Alloy Spectrophotometry

"Recent Developments In Flow Injection Analysis: Gradient Techniques And Hydrodynamic Injection"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1983 Volume 145, Issue 1 Pages 1-15
J. Rika and E. H. Hansen

Abstract: Some of the most exciting recent advances in flow injection analysis (f.i.a.) have involved gradient techniques, which, founded on the key role of the dispersion controlled in space and time, are based on the feasibility of identifying and selecting reproducibly suitable sections of the dispersed sample zone and exploiting the specific concentrations at these points for analytical purposes. A comprehensive review of these techniques is given; in addition to the well established f.i.a. titrations and stopped-flow reaction rate procedures, methods have been developed for gradient dilution and calibration, gradient scanning, and selectivity evaluation. Finally, a detailed description of the most recent development within f.i.a., a hydrodynamic injector with no moving parts and zero dead volumes, is presente.
Spectrophotometry

"Enzymatic Preparations In Analytical Continuous-flow Systems"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1983 Volume 145, Issue 1 Pages 27-39
Horacio A. Mottola

Abstract: Research on different enzyme prepartion in unsegmented continuous-flow systems is discussed. The relative merits of using closed-loop systems, packed reactors with immobilized enzyme, open-tube wall reactors, and single-bead-string reactors are considered for expensive enzymes unstable in solution and for inexpensive stable enzymes. For immobilization, covalent bonding to the surface of a glass matrix is recommended.

"Enzyme Reactors In Unsegmented Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1983 Volume 145, Issue 1-3 Pages 79-85
Gillis Johansson, Lars Ogren and Bo Olsson

Abstract: The design of immobilized-enzyme reactors for use in flow injection analysis is discussed. The reactors should be optimized for a short residence time and a very high (> 99.9%) conversion of substrate to products. Selection of carrier and immobilization method is important in order to increase the amount of active enzyme per unit volume. The effeciency of the reactor can be increased by decreasing the particle size in packed-bed reactors and the radius of open tubular reactors. The maximum inherent rate constant that can be obtained under optimal conditions is estimated for a number of enzymes of analytical interest; it is shown that with high rate constants and small particle diamters, residence times less than seconds can be obtained. Some applications of immobilized-enzyme reactors in flow systems are reviewed.

"Optimization Of Peroxidase Immobilization And Of The Design Of Packed-bed Enzyme Reactors For Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1983 Volume 145, Issue 1 Pages 87-99
Bo Olsson and Lars Ögren

Abstract: Packed-bed reactors containing horse radish peroxidase were optimized for use in flow injection systems. The most active and stable immobilizations were produced by azo linkage to porous glass. The influence of pore and particle diameter as well as pH of immobilization, number of coupling sites, and enzyme purity were studied. The reactor behavior could be accurately described by a theory derived on the assumptions of first-order kinetics. The effects of internal and external mass transfer resistances were studied and the rate constants were evaluated. Design criteria for analytical reactors are discussed. A small particle diameter is shown to be of utmost importance in order to achieve low dispersion with fixed levels of back-pressure and conversion.
Glucose Hydrogen peroxide Oxygen Biochemical analysis

"Selectivity In Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1983 Volume 148, Issue 1 Pages 111-125
E. H. Hansen and J. RikaF. J. Krug and E. A. G. Zagatto

Abstract: A generalized method for assessing the extent of interference of foreign species on a given chemical assay is proposed. The interference can be quantified by a parameter termed selectivity coefficient. The method is based on injecting the analyte and the interfering species simultaneuosly, and then letting them merge eithe synchronously or asynchromously; the analytical readout is taken from the element of fluid where the dispersion of the two species is identical. It is shown that this makes the accompanying calculations simple, because the selectivity coefficient can be related directly to the originally injected concentrations. The general method is demonstrated for a spectrophotometric procedure for the determination of manganese with formaldoxime, and the selectivity coefficients for various metal ion are determined. The applicability of three different f.i.a. manifold configurations is discussed.
Manganese

"The Application Of Computers In Chemometrics And Analytical Chemistry"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1983 Volume 150, Issue 1 Pages 115-127
R. M. Belchamber, D. Betteridge, Y. T. Chow, T. J. Sly and A. P. Wade

Abstract: A selective survey of applications of computers and chemometrics in analytical chemistry is given. These range from the relatively simple control and computational functions of a microprocessor dedicated to an automatic titrator to a technique employing complex data processing for image processing, computerised tomography. Intermediate in terms of complexity are automated self-optimising flow-injection systems and the extraction of analytical information from acoustic emissions. The relative costs of options for computerising a process are considered and the important role of the instrument companies is emphasised.

"Flow Electrolysis At A Porous Tubular Electrode With Internal Stirring"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1983 Volume 151, Issue 1 Pages 109-116
Joseph Wang and Bassam A. Freiha

Abstract: The design and properties of a porous tubular electrode, in which effective mass transport is ensured by a stirrer rotating inside the tube, are described. High currents are possible owing to the high surface area and mass transport rates. The dependence of the limiting current and the degree of conversion on stirring and flow rate and on electrode length are described. A hydrodynamic modulation mode, based on measuring the current difference while switching the stirrer on and off, is used to correct for background. The cell was used for the determination of caffeic acid, paracetamol, dopamine and Fe(CN)64- in flow injection and continuous-flow analyzes, with detection limits at the nM level.
4-Acetylaminophenol Caffeic acid Dopamine Hexacyanoferrate(II) Electrode Electrode Electrode Voltammetry Hydrodynamic modulation

"Membrane Separation In Flow Injection Analysis. Gas Diffusion"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1983 Volume 151, Issue 1 Pages 359-369
W. E. Van Der Linden

Abstract: A general expression is derived for the membrane transport process in a flow-through unit as commonly used in flow injection systems. The validity of the formulae was tested for gas-diffusion membranes by using compounds with different volatilities such as ammonia, carbon dioxide and acetic acid. Several microporous hydrophobic membranes were tested. A new module design is proposed.
Acetic acid Ammonia Carbon dioxide Water Spectrophotometry

"Dispersion In Continuous-flow Sample Processing"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1983 Volume 154, Issue 1 Pages 1-16
C. C. Painton and Horacio A. Mottola

Abstract: A review is presented, with 54 references. The shape and quality of the analytical signal acquired after continuous-flow sample processing is directly influenced by dispersion. Dispersion in such procedure occurs as a result of mass transfer and mixing during sample transport by the carrier stream to a detector. The occurrence of chemical reactions during the transport can alter diffusion and convection processes. This review covers dispersion in fields such as physiological circulation research, chemical reactor engineering, and chromatography. The physical description in these fields has, to a large extent, influenced the views of those concerned with dispersion in continuous-flow sample processing. Views of dispersion in segmented and unsegmented continuous-flow situations are also considered and the limited attention given to chemical kinetics in these approaches to sample handling in chemical analysis is noted.
Chromatography

"The Optimum Composition Of PH-sensitive Acceptor Solutions For Membrane Separation In Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1983 Volume 155, Issue 1 Pages 273-277
W. E. van der Linden

Abstract: A theoretical study is presented of factors governing the choice of indicator and buffer systems for the spectrophotometric determination of volatile analytes (e.g., NH3 and CO2) by transfer across a gas-permeable membrane into a suitable acceptor solution Application of the derived equations is illustrated by the choice of optimum conditions for the measurement of 0.1 to 10 mM NH3
Ammonia Carbon dioxide Spectrophotometry

"Extraction Based On The Flow Injection Principle. 6. Film Formation And Dispersion In Liquid-liquid Segmented Flow Extraction Systems"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1984 Volume 164, Issue 1 Pages 233-249
Lage Nord, Bo Karlberg

Abstract: Studies have shown that the phase with the highest affinity for the tubing material in flow injection systems forms a thin film on the wall (e.g., 0.055 mm in a 0.7-mm-i.d. PTFE tube with pentanol - water at a flow rate of 11 cm s-1). The analyte is extracted into the film and into the adjacent segments. The film is stationary relative to the moving segments, and this results in a backward transport of analyte molecules giving rise to dispersion; the thicker the film, the greater the dispersion. By decreasing the tube diameter and the flow rate, lower dispersion results. Minimum dispersion is obtained for systems in which the phase carrying the analyte does not form a film.
Sample preparation

"Controlled-dispersion Flow Analysis. Flow Injection Analysis Applied To Clinical Chemistry"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 179, Issue 1 Pages 69-80
C. Riley, B. F. Rocks and R. A. Sherwood

Abstract: A review is presented in which features and applications of the technique are described and discussed, including prolonged incubation, use of kinetic methods to minimize the need for blanks and the use of various detectors. (23 references). Mechanisation came early to clinical chemistry and has passed through a number of phases. Selective multichannel machines, usually discrete analyzer.s with their associated mechanical complexities, have become popular; the simplicity and reliability of flow analyzer.s has been lost. Flow injection offers new opportunities to develop simple selective machines. Sample waste is avoided in the controlled-dispersion flow analyzer.; the slug of sample is picked up by a probe, the volume being metered by the peristaltic pump driven by a stepping motor under computer control. Reagent waste is avoided by a similar system and use of merging zones. Very economical operation is thus possible and acceptable precision is attained. Various features of the technique, including prolonged incubation, use of kinetic methods to minimise the need for blanks, and application of different detectors are discussed in the context of clinical assays. Anomalous behavior of particulate matter in flow streams and the changing shape of sample slugs in stationary streams are described. The application of flow-injection systems in clinical chemistry is extremely promising.
Clinical analysis

"Flow Injection Analysis In Online Process Control"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 179, Issue 1 Pages 91-101
W. E. Van Der Linden

Abstract: A review is presented, with 20 references. Examples of industrial applications are limited to the field of water quality surveillance.
Sulfide Water

"Combination Of Flow Injection Techniques With Atomic Spectrometry In Agricultural And Environmental Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 179, Issue 1 Pages 325-340
Zhaolun Fang, Shukun Xu, Xiu Wang and Suchun Zhang

Abstract: A review is presented, with 37 references, in which the applications of the coupled techniques are discussed with emphasis on agricultural and environmental analyzes.
Arsenic Cadmium Selenium Agricultural Environmental Ion exchange Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry

"Commutation In Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 179, Issue 1 Pages 103-118
F. J. Krug, H. Bergamin F° and E. A. G. Zagatto

Abstract: A review is presented, with 43 references. A solution of 0.1% bromocresol green in 0.01 M Na2B4O7, with the latter as the carrier stream and absorbance measurement at 617 nm, is used to illustrate loop- and time-based, hydrodynamic, sequential and nested injection procedures.
Spectrophotometry

"A Submersible Flow Analysis System"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 179, Issue 1 Pages 245-257
Kenneth S. Johnson, Carl L. Beehler and Carole M. Sakamoto-Arnold

Abstract: A submersible chemical analyzer. (SCANNER) that is capable of virtually an in situ spectrophotometric determination in seawater has been applied to the determination of silicate by the molybdenum blue method and of S2- by the methylene blue procedure. The coefficient of variation for 0.1 mM silicate and 25 µM-S2- are 0.6 and 0.5%, respectively, in laboratory tests; results are similar for in situ analysis of seawater at a depth of 2500 m. Detection limits are ~0.1 µM.
Silicate Sulfide Sea Spectrophotometry

"Potentiometric Detection In Flow Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 179, Issue 1 Pages 359-370
K. Tóth, J. Fucskó, E. Lindner, Zs. Fehér and E. Pungor

Abstract: Flow-through potentiometric detection in flow injection analysis is discussed and the performance characteristics of ion-selective electrodes with respect to rectilinear response, detection limit, selectivity and stability are studied. A method for the determination of F- with a selective electrode in rain-water is described, and a K+-selective electrode described by Tarcali et al. (Anal. Abstr., 1986, 48, 11J139) was applied to the analysis of blood serum. The results were in good agreement with those obtained by ion-chromatographic methods (for F-) and flame-photometric methods (for K).
Potassium Fluoride Blood Serum Rain Electrode Electrode Potentiometry

"Flow Cell And Diffusion Coefficient Effects In Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 179, Issue 1 Pages 427-432
D. C. Stone and J. F. Tyson

Abstract: The effects of flow rates of 0.84, 2.00 and 6.00 mL min-1 were recorded on cells of 0.6, 8.0, 25 and 60 µL. For each flow rate the graphs for the three smaller cells lay close together but for the 60 µL cell a big difference in shape and a reduction in peak height observed. Variation of the dispersion coefficient with flow rate for five different solutes gave a day-to-day precision of 1.95 (mean coefficient) ± 0.012 and over a period of several days 1.90 ± 0.089 (n = 10). Analytical implications of the findings are discussed.
Spectrophotometry

"The First Decade Of Flow Injection Analysis: From Serial Assay To Diagnostic Tool"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 179, Issue 1 Pages 1-58
Jaromir Rika and Elo H. Hansen

Abstract: The important concepts of, and developments and innovations in, the technique are reviewed and likely future developments are discussed. (811 references).

"Time Based Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 179, Issue 1 Pages 59-68
Kent K. Stewart

Abstract: Time-based flow-injection systems are novel measurement systems which use induced dispersion of the sample in the system and measurement of time to evaluate the concentration of the analyte in the sample. There are two types of time-based system. In the standard systems, assays are based on the chemistries of the classical intensity assays; in the pseudo-titration systems, the assays are based on classical titration chemistries. These systems are discussed in terms of basic theory, classification of the systems and their advantages.

"Studies Of Interacting Biochemical Systems By Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 179, Issue 1 Pages 81-90
J. N. Miller, G. L. Abdullahi, H. N. Sturley, V. Gossain and P. L. McCluskey

Abstract: Biochemical interactions of analytical importance can be investigated by heterogeneous and homogeneous techniques. In the former, small ligans are physically separated from macromolecular receptor molecules. This is technically complex but removes unwanted interferences. Homogeneous methods avoid the separation step and are rapid and convenient, but suffer more from background interferences. They also require the presence of suitable probe molecules. It is shown that flow injection analysis can be used advantageously with both heteregeneous and homogeneous techniques. Packed reactors containing group-specific receptors effectively reduce the background fluorescence of blood serum. Gradient flow-injection techniques are used with fluorescence probes in the rapid determination of ligand/protein binding parameters; the results agree well with those of slower, conventional procedures.
Proteins Clinical analysis Fluorescence

"Potential Of The Flow Injection Technique In Soil Chemical Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 180, Issue 1-3 Pages 8-11
Zhaolun Fang

Abstract: Since its introduction into soil chemical studies at the Institute of Forestry and Soil Science, Academia Sinica, in about 1977, flow injection (FI) analysis has gradually gained acceptance as one of the most efficient and versatile techniques ever introduced. More than twenty well-established yet sometimes tedious manual methods have been replaced by automated FI procedures. These form the basis of a fully automated soil analysis system. For the most frequently determined fractions, such as total nitrogen and phosphorus in soils, adoption of FI techniques has increased sample throughput three to four-fold without increasing the number of technical personnel needed. FI procedures have generally proved more precise and reliable than their manual counterparts and reagent consumption is also considerably lower. Trace element analyzes of soils can be done efficiently and accurately by FI analysis even in the absence of an atomic absorption spectrometer. Various satisfactory attempts have been made at combining FI analysis with flame AAS.
Environmental Spectrophotometry

"Electroanalytical Voltammetry In Flowing Solutions"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 180, Issue 1 Pages 187-250
Dennis C. Johnson, Stephen G. Weber, Alan M. Bond, R. Mark Wightman, Ronald E. Shoup, Ira S. Krull

Abstract: A review is given of the principles, key developments and representative applications of small electrodes in flow-through electrochemical (ec) detectors having very low effective dead volume (<10 µL) for voltammetric and amperometric detection in flowing solutions. Emphasis is placed on factors contributing to high sensitivity, reliability and selectivity of ec detection as an integral part of larger analytical systems utilizing continuously flowing, unsegmented streams, e.g., flow-injection and liquid chromatographic analyzes. Solid and mercury electrodes are considered under potentiostatic and potentiodynamic control. A review is given also of auxiliary chemical and photolytic derivatizations coupled to ec detection. The majority of the literature on the subject relates to liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection (l.c./ec); however, applications to these concepts to specific examples in flow-injection systems, as well as for on-line process control, should be obvious. Details of chromatographic separations and design of total analytical systems are not reviewed.
Amperometry Voltammetry

"Dispersion In Phase Separators For Flow Injection Extraction Systems"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 187, Issue 1 Pages 255-269
Kenneth B&auml;ckstr&ouml;m, Lars-G&ouml;ran Danielsson and Lage Nord

Abstract: Eight cylindrical and two grooved-type membrane phase separators of various sizes were evaluated in respect of their separation efficiencies and influence on dispersion. For all but the smallest cylindrical separator the separation efficiencies were >99% at total flow rates of up to 5 mL min-1 and for aqueous-to-organic phase volume ratios of 0.05 to 30. The smallest cylindrical separator (total volume 5.6 µL) showed good separation efficiency for phase volume ratios <1, but at higher ratios and a total flow rate of 5 mL min-1 the efficiency fell to ~95%. Provided good phase separation was achieved the separator made a negligible contribution to the total dispersion of the system. Under these conditions the volume of the unsegmented flow cavity in the separator is the most important factor affecting dispersion, and, therefore, relatively large segmented flow cavities can be used if necessary to facilitate phase separation at high total flow rates. When losses occur in the separators then the total volume of the separator determines the dispersion. The overall dispersion is decreased by the pulsating flow generated by the peristaltic pumps; the use of pulse dampers results in ~15% higher dispersion.
Sample preparation

"Flow Injection Analysis - A Survey Of Its Potential For Continuous Monitoring Of Industrial Processes"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 190, Issue 1 Pages 155-163
Jaromir Rika,

Abstract: A review is presented, with 18 references, including sample and reagent injection into reagent and sample streams, respectively, sample/reagent mixing and peak-height and peak-width measurements.
Industrial

"A Review Of Online Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 190, Issue 1 Pages 1-11
J. R. P. Clarke

Abstract: Practical analytical devices only become generally available when there has been a meaningful relationship between users, researchers, equipment manufacturers and the suppliers of capital. In order to obtain good value from capital investment, the analytical engineer must assess initial requests for work constructively. The cost return from process analysis depends not only on good maintenance planning but also on the confidence of the users. Apart from signal correction and processing, microelectronics are now commonly used to auto-diagnose analyzer. faults. This both aids maintenance and reassures the owner. Sampling systems, a key factor in analytical practice, often lead to a difference in the results from process and laboratory analysis. Laboratory automation is narrowing the gap between on and off-line analytical systems. Some major techniques are briefly reviewed with comments on possible trends and applications.

On-line chemical analysis owes its charm and its very existence to the melding of ideas from a multitude of sciences and technologies. Serious practitioners make it their business to foster new contacts to glean, record, and barter ideas, even from fields which, at first sight, appear unrelated. Users, researchers and equipment manufacturers should continually review their own positions to create meaningful relationships with each other and build strong links in chemical measurement and on-line analysis.

"Industrial Process Control By Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1986 Volume 190, Issue 1 Pages 165-176
M. Gisin and C. Thommen

Abstract: The principle of physiochemical and chemical modulation in flow injection analysis is outlined. Advantageous properties of flow injection analyzers for chemical on-line process control are summarized. Three exampls of applications are presented. First, peak-width measurements enable chemical batch processes to be monitored over several orders of magnitude of analyte concentration whereas peak-height measurements are selected in the critical state of the process where very small changes of analyte concentration must be determined precisely. Secondly, exploitation of variable gradient dilution to match sample concentration to the needs of accurate analysis is combined with trapped-zone selective spectrophotometry. Finally, frequency-discriminated chemical analysis is feasible by combining sample gradient formation with reagent injection.
Industrial

"Design And Evaluation Of A Sandwich Phase Separator For Online Liquid/liquid Extraction"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1987 Volume 192, Issue 2 Pages 267-275
C. De Ruiter, J. H. Wolf, U. A. Th. Brinkman and R. W. Frei

Abstract: The separator (diagram given), tested as part of a post-column extraction detector for HPLC and flow injection analysis, consisted of two stainless-steel blocks, one with a groove and one without, and a PTFE disc with a groove. An inlet and outlet were machined into the blocks. A study was undertaken to establish the influence of the groove dimensions on the separation efficiency. Heptane - aqueous organic phase and dichloroethane - aqueous organic phase systems were examined and successfully separated by both gravity and wetting processes. Separators having a groove volume of 30 to 43 µL gave an optimum efficiency of 0.3 to 0.4 when separating phases at flow rates of 1 mL min-1 with a contribution to band broadening of 2.5 to 4 s. A separator with a groove volume of 8 µL exhibited separation efficiency of 1.0 at flows of ~0.2 mL min-1, and would be ideal for narrow-bore HPLC.
HPLC Sample preparation

"Extraction Rate In Liquid-liquid Segmented Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1987 Volume 194, Issue 1 Pages 221-223
L. Nord, K. B&auml;ckstr&ouml;m, L. -G. Danielsson and F. Ingman, B. Karlberg

Abstract: Caffeine is extracted into CHCl3 and bromocresol green into pentanol - heptane (1:1) in studies of the dependence of extraction efficiency on segment length, tubing diameter, flow velocity and residence time in a segmented flow-analysis system. These parameters can be varied reproducibly, with a decrease in the parameter value increasing the extraction efficiency. Such flow injection extraction could be employed in the study of extraction kinetics.
Caffeine Sample preparation

"Effects Of Ultrasonic Irradiation In Flow Injection Systems"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1987 Volume 200, Issue 1 Pages 51-59
P. Linares, F. L&aacute;zaro, M. D. Luque De Castro and M. Valc&aacute;rcel

Abstract: The influence of ultrasound on the physical dispersion of the injected volume was studied. The effects of sonication on homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions were critically evaluated. Greater sensitivity was obtained by ultrasonic irradiation of analytical continuous-flow manifolds, especially for heterogeneous systems (e.g., liquid extraction, precipitation), slow reactions and low analyte concentration. Practical considerations and uses of sonication in flow injection analysis are discussed.
Sample preparation

"Fundamental And Practical Considerations In The Design Of Online Column Preconcentration For Flow Injection Atomic Spectrometric Systems"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1987 Volume 200, Issue 1 Pages 35-49
Zhaolun Fang, Shukun Xu and Suchun Zhang

Abstract: The terms concentration. efficiency (expressed as the enrichment factor per min), retention efficiency, recovery data and elution efficiency are recommended as criteria for the critical evaluation of an online column pre-concentration. system. Efficiency is improved with time-based sampling and double-column systems without intermediate column washing. Columns (4.5 cm x 3 mm) with sample loading rates of 9.5 mL min-1 are proposed for achieving high efficiency and accuracy with AAS detection. More careful optimization of column dimensions is needed for detection by ICP-AES. A procedure for the online pre-concentration. of Co in water, involving columns of CPG-8Q exchanger (Pierce Chemicals) and a mobile phase of 25 mM ammonium acetate (pH 8), is presented. An enrichment factor of 48 was achieved at a sampling rate of 60 h-1. The coefficient of variation was 1.7% at the 40 µg L-1 level (n = 11) and the detection limit was 0.2 µg l-1.
Cobalt Environmental Spectrophotometry

"Trace Determination Of Some Heavy Metals In Waters By Flow Injection Spectrophotometry And Potentiometry"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1987 Volume 200, Issue 1 Pages 21-33
Yu. A. Zolotov, L. K. Shpigun, I. Ya. Kolotyrkina, E. A. Novikov and O. V. Bazanova

Abstract: Three automated flow injection manifolds are described for the determination of dissolved ionic or weakly associated Cu(II), Pb and Mn(II) in natural, potable and waste waters. The catalytic effect of Mn(II) on the oxidation of NN-diethylaniline by KIO4 at pH 6.86 to 7.10 and 30°C was used for the determination of 0.02 to 1.00 µg L-1 of Mn at 475 nm. The system used a three-channel manifold with reagent injection and stopped-flow. Interference by Fe(III) was eliminated by using phosphate (pH 6.86) or citrate - phosphate buffer (pH 7.10). Lead (0.7 to 100 µg l-1) was determined at 520 nm as its complex with 4-(2-pyridylazo)resorcinol (pH 9.8) after online pre-concentration. of the sample (5 to 50 ml) on a mini-column of Chelex-100 or Dowex 1-X8. Many interfering ions were masked with 10% KCN solution A potentiometric system with a Cu ion-selective electrode was used for the determination of Cu(II) (0.5 to 1000 µg l-1). Samples (50 to 500 ml), mixed with 0.5 M acetate buffer (pH 4.7), were subjected to online pre-concentration. on Chelex-100 resin.
Manganese Lead Copper Metals, heavy Sea Water Waste Potentiometry Spectrophotometry Electrode

"Online Separation And Preconcentration In Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1988 Volume 214, Issue 1-2 Pages 41-55
Zhaolun Fang, Zhaohai Zhu, Suchun Zhang, Shukun Xu, Lei Guo and Lijing Sun

Abstract: A review is presented of developments in flow injection analysis that involve separation and pre-concentration. by gas diffusion, ion exchange or liquid - liquid extraction. Several inorganic illustrations of each principle are given, mainly of their use as a preliminary stage before determination by AAS. (44 references).
Ammonia Beryllium Cerium Cobalt Cyanide Fluoride Mercury Nickel Selenium Vanadium Ion exchange Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Sample preparation

"Atomic Spectrometry And Flow Injection Analysis: A Synergic Combination"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1988 Volume 214, Issue 1-2 Pages 57-75
Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: A review is presented of systems in which flow injection analysis is coupled with flame AAS or AES or ICP-AES, with particular reference to recent work. (87 references).
Metals Anions, inorganic Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry

"Theoretical And Practical Development Of Flow Injection Extraction"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1988 Volume 214, Issue 1-2 Pages 29-39
Bo Karlberg

Abstract: A review is presented of the instrumentation, theory and practicability of continuous-flow extraction techniques. The application of an adsorption - elution process in, e.g., a single-bead string reactor system is proposed, and is illustrated by separation of caffeine from coffee with methanol as eluting solvent. (42 references).
Caffeine Vegetable Sample preparation

"Homogeneous And Heterogeneous Systems. Flow Injection Analysis Today And Tomorrow."
Anal. Chim. Acta 1988 Volume 214, Issue 1-2 Pages 1-27
Jaromir Ruzicka, Elo Harald Hansen

Abstract: A review is presented, with 31 references, of flow injection analysis involving chemical reactions in homogeneous or heterogeneous conversion systems, the latter with simultaneous or subsequent (after merging) detection of the measurable species formed. The use of immobilized reagents, e.g., enzymatic catalysts, is especially mentioned. A bibliography is appended of 280 references to work published in 1987.

"Different Approaches To The Determination Of Ammonium Ions At Low Levels By Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1988 Volume 214, Issue 1-2 Pages 121-136
G. Schulze, C. Y. Liu, M. Brodowski and O. Elsholz, W. Frenzel, J. M&ouml;ller

Abstract: For determination of 1 µM-NH3 by flow injection analysis, an optimized gas diffusion system was used, with spectrophotometric or selective-electrode detection. The gas diffusion unit had channels 7.5 cm long, 2 mm wide and 0.2 mm deep. The spectrophotometric detection flow cell had 10 mm pathlength and a capacity of 8 or 18 µL. The selective electrode (0.7 mm diameter, surface area ~20 mm2) consisted of nonactin in PVC and was used with an Orion 90-02 double-junction reference electrode. Spectrophotometric detection with bromocresol purple provided a lower limit of 0.2 µM, but was subject to background interference from, e.g., CO2. The selective electrode provided Nernstian response for 1 to 100 µM, with a detection limit of ~0.1 µM.
Ammonium Potentiometry Spectrophotometry Electrode

"Multiple Peak Recordings In Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1989 Volume 216, Issue 1-2 Pages 275-288
M. Valc&aacute;rcel, M. D. Luque de castro, F. L&aacute;zaro and A. R&iacute;os

Abstract: A review is presented, with 110 references, of the applications of the cited technique for, e.g., simultaneous and sequential multi-detection, multi-component determinations, reaction-rate methods, and automatic amplification of conventional concentration. ranges.

"Unstable Reagents In Flow Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1989 Volume 216, Issue 1-2 Pages 289-297
G. Den Boef

Abstract: A review is presented, with 12 references, of the analytical applications of unstable oxidizing and reducing agents in flow analysis, with particular reference to the elimination of problems arising in batch analysis, e.g., frequent standardization, difficulties with storage and time consumption.

"Flow Injection Enzymic Assays"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1989 Volume 216, Issue 1-2 Pages 257-273
Elo Harald Hansen

Abstract: A review is presented, with 34 references, of the advantages of the cited technique. The use of soluble and immobilized enzyme preparations is discussed together with their applications in process control. A review is presented, with 34 references, of the advantages of the cited technique. The use of soluble and immobilized enzyme preparations is discussed together with their applications in process control.
Enzymes

"Kinetic Aspects Of Analytical Chemistry"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1989 Volume 216, Issue 1-2 Pages 69-107
Harry L. Pardue

Abstract: A review is presented, with 89 references. Methods are classified into single-component, direct computational and curve-fitting methods. Applications of kinetic methods in luminescence, potentiometric, flow injection, and chromatographic analyzes are discussed.
Luminescence Potentiometry

"Post-column Derivatization In Liquid Chromatography Using Immobilized-enzyme Reactors And Amperometric Detection"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1990 Volume 234, Issue 1 Pages 13-29
Gy&ouml;rgy Marko-Varga and Lo Gorton

Abstract: The advantages to be gained by conducting enzyme assays of carbohydrates in liquid chromatography are discussed. The enzymes are contained in immobilized enzyme reactors and used in the post-column mode. The product formed in the reactor is selectively detected amperometrically at a chemically modified electrode mounted in a flow-through detector. Selected examples are given to illustrate the advantages obtained.
Carbohydrates Amperometry LC

"Atomic Spectrometric Detectors For Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1990 Volume 234, Issue 1 Pages 3-12
Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: A review is presented, with 108 references published in 1988 and 1989. Limitations of such detectors are discussed for the three most common techniques, viz, flame and electrothermal AAS and ICP-AES. The differences between HPLC and flow injection analysis are also discussed.
Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry HPLC Spectrophotometry

"Modified Electrodes For Electrochemical Detection In Flowing Streams"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1990 Volume 234, Issue 1 Pages 41-48
Joseph Wang

Abstract: A review is presented, with 54 references. Surface-modification strategies are discussed in detail, including the use of electrocatalytic surfaces allowing lower operating potentials, perm-selective coatings allowing controlled access to the surface and analyte-selective biological tissues (e.g., banana- or mushroom-modified electrodes). The flow systems discussed are HPLC and flow injection analysis.
Electrochemical analysis Electrode HPLC

"Application Of Wet Chemistry Techniques To Process Analysis And Control"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1990 Volume 238, Issue 1 Pages 161-170
Rajko Puzic

Abstract: The application of automatic titrators and ion chromatographs to the compositional analysis of caustic and alkanolamine gas sweetening solution is described. Comparisons with other techniques such as flow injection analysis and UV and near-IR spectrometry are made and pertinent features and benefits of each are discussed.
Gas HPIC

"Stopped-flow Technqiue In Analytical Chemistry"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1991 Volume 242, Issue 2 Pages 147-177
A. Gomez-Hens and D. Perez-Bendito

Abstract: A review is presented, with 250 references, of stopped-flow flow injection analysis. The instrumentation required and the scope of applications are discussed.

"Selective Detection In Flow Analysis Based On The Combination Of Immobilized Enzymes And Chemically Modified Electrodes"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1991 Volume 250, Issue 1 Pages 203-248
L. Gorton*, E. Cs&ouml;regi, E. Dom&iacute;nguez, J. Emn&eacute;us, G. J&ouml;nsson-Pettersson, G. Marko-Varga and B. Persson

Abstract: A review is presented, with 319 references, of the combination of immobilized enzymes and amperometry to build selective detection devices in FIA. The advantages and disadvantages of enzyme electrodes and immobilized enzyme reactors are discussed. The review concentrates on the use of immobilized dehydrogenases, oxidases and peroxidases and on electrodes on which these enzyme reactions can be selectively followed.
Amperometry Electrode

"New Approaches To Molecular Spectroscopic Detection In Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1991 Volume 250, Issue 1 Pages 157-168
M. Valc&aacute;rcel* and M. D. Luque de Castro

Abstract: A review is presented, with 85 references, of the most significant innovations in the use of FIA as a tool for introducing and processing samples and standards in molecular spectroscopic methods. Modifications to FIA configuration are discussed as well as modifications and innovations in the use of molecular spectroscopic detectors. Unusual detectors in FIA are also considered.

"Experience With Flow Injection Analysis In Marine Chemical Research"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1992 Volume 261, Issue 1-2 Pages 307-314
Lilija K. Shpigun*, Irina Ya. Kolotyrkina and Yurij A. Zolotov

Abstract: A review is presented in which diagrams are shown of reversed flow injection systems used for the determination of silicate, phosphate, SO42-, S2- and Mn(II) in seawater; normal flow injection methods are also described for the determination of alkalinity, SO42- and the main nutrient-type constituents in interstitial water from marine sediments. The methods can be carried out successfully on board ship. (37 references). Some results on using flow injection analysis (FIA) in marine chemical investigations are reported. The new modifications of reversed flow injection manifolds for the determination of dissolved silicate, PO33-, SO42-, sulfide, and Mn(II) in seawater samples and normal flow injection methods for the determination of total alkalinity, SO42-, and main nutrient-type constituents in interstitial water samples are described. The use of the proposed procedures for obtaining the concentration. profiles of some important species in seawater and in interstitial water of marine sediments is shown. The advantages of FIA techniques for determining the chemical data in a chemical laboratory aboard a vessel are demonstrated.
Silicate Phosphate Sulfate Sulfide Manganese(II) Sea

"Exploiting Kinetic-based Flow Injection Methods For Quantitative Chemical Assays"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1992 Volume 261, Issue 1-2 Pages 125-136
Elo Harald Hansen

Abstract: A review is presented of flow injection analyzes that take advantage of kinetic discrimination or kinetic enhancement, with emphasis on procedures involving determination of metastable constituents, exploitation of chemical conversions, hydride generation, or enzymatic degradation with use of soluble or immobilized enzyme preparations (including amplification techniques). (75 references). By selected examples, attention is focused on the intriguing and exciting possibilities that flow injection analysis (FIA) offers for determinations via kinetic-based chemical assays where advantage is taken of either kinetic discrimination or kinetic enhancement. In this context, emphasis is placed on procedures based on quantifying metastable constituents or exploiting chemical conversion techniques, on procedures based on hydride generation, and on methods employing enzymatic degradation schemes utilizing either soluble or immobilized enzyme preparations, including approaches based on enzyme amplifications. Maintaining that FIA to a large extent is still used as a means of rapidly performing serial assays, it is argued that this analytical concept does entail unique analytical opportunities and, if used intelligently, promises to allow the execution of analytical approaches which are not possible by any other means.

"Coupling Of Continuous Separation Techniques With Unsegmented Flow Systems"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1992 Volume 261, Issue 1-2 Pages 425-434
M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valc&aacute;rcel*

Abstract: Different ways of coupling continuous separation techniques are reviewed. Sections are included on gas - liquid/liquid - liquid coupled interfaces and gas - liquid/solid - liquid and liquid - liquid/solid - liquid coupled techniques, and some of their applications are cited. (33 references). A review with 33 references. An overview of the potential of combined continuous separation techniques is presented. The different possible types of interface (gas-liq., liq.-liq., and solid-liq.) were associated in different ways and nos. depending on the particular problem to be solved. A complementary or synergistic effect was accomplished in all instances, which testifies to the interest in coupled continuous separation techniques.

"Exploiting Stopped-flow Injection Methods For Quantitative Chemical Assays"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1992 Volume 261, Issue 1-2 Pages 11-21
Gary D. Christian* and Jaromir Rika

Abstract: In this review, the advantages of stopped-flow flow injection techniques are illustrated by a range of analyzes developed in the author's laboratory. These include enzymatic measurements for monitoring biological processes, monitoring of enzyme reactions on solid surfaces (e.g., membranes or C18 silica particles), membrane pre-concentration. and FTIR spectrometry. The sequential injection technique and means of controlling flow are also discussed. (57 references). Advantages of the stopped-flow injection techniques are emphasized and illustrated by examples of assays developed in the authors' lab., including enzymatic measurements for bioprocess monitoring, the monitoring of enzyme reactions on solid surfaces, the determination of reaction rate constants, membrane pre-concentration. of mol. species, flow injection Fourier transform IR measurements and a novel type of flow injection coulometric titration Sequential injection anal., a next generation of stopped-flow injection methodologies, is discussed together with new ways of propelling and controlling flows, including novel syringe-based devices.
Spectrophotometry

"First Decade Of Flow Injection Analysis In China"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1992 Volume 261, Issue 1-2 Pages 557-576
Zhaolun Fang*, Lijing Sun and Shukun Xu

Abstract: The development of flow injection analysis (FIA) in China between 1981 and 1990 is reviewed, with particular reference to the main fields in which important developments have been made. These include the analytical exploitation of unstable reactions, the enhancement of selectivity with kinetic discrimination, segmented FIA, the combination of FIA with atomic spectrometry, gradient calibration, and the determination of rare-earth and Pt-group metals. (350 references). A review is given of the development of flow injection analysis (FIA) in China during the period 1981-90 with about 350 references. The main fields in which some of the more important research contributions have been made are briefly outlined, including the anal. exploitation of unstable reactions, selectivity enhancement by kinetic discrimination, segmented FIA, atomic spectrometry, gradient calibration, and FIA of rare earth and platinum group metals.
Metals, rare earth

"Flow Injection Atomic Spectrometry: A New Analytical Technique"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1992 Volume 261, Issue 1-2 Pages 75-85
Julian F. Tyson*, S. R. Bysouth, E. A. Grzesczyk and E. Debrah

Abstract: The literature on flow injection analysis coupled with atomic spectrometry is reviewed. Several types of closed-loop recirculating manifolds for particular applications are described, viz, for calibration, dilution, acid-leaching of Ca, and Ag matrix removal in AAS. The performance of each of the manifolds was satisfactory at recirculating flow rates up to 10 mL min-1. (75 references). Much of the recent research in analytical atomic spectrometry has been concerned with problems of a practical nature. In particular, the inaccuracies arising from a variety of matrix effects and the limitations of sample introduction systems have provided a considerable driving force for recent developments in the various techniques. The philosophy of attempting to eliminate, or compensate for, interferences by procedures implemented at the atomization stage has had success for electrothermal atomization atomic absorption spectrometry but has proved of limited utility for other techniques. Despite considerable efforts, solid-sample introduction is still best done by procedures whose initial stage is dissolution There is a steady growth in the flow injection atomic spectrometric literature and a survey of the ~50 publications in 1990 shows that much of the interest is now centered on coupling pre-concentration and matrix removal procedures with atomic spectrometry, although there is still work concerned with the basic characteristics of flow injection introduction, such as the reduction in sample loading, online dilution for calibration purposes and the ability to handle small sample volumes, being published. The role of the flow injection valve as an interface between flow systems is highlighted. This interface allows independent optimization of the various flow systems coupled in this fashion. Several possible applications of recirculating closed-loop manifolds are described. These include the serial dilution of a stock standard for calibration purposes and to establish a working detection limit. This is illustrated by the dilution of a 2.45 mg L-1 solution of magnesium by a factor of 2.20 per injection. This procedure established a detection limit for the instrument involved of between 4.2 and 5.2 ng mL-1. The online acid leaching of calcium from charcoal is shown to be sufficiently precise for the basis of a rapid screening procedure and the determination of copper in matrixes containing up to 50 g L-1 silver is made possible by the online precipitation of the matrix as the chloride in a circulating loop containing a filter column of nylon fibers. The additional possibilities afforded by these designs of manifold and the great variety of manifolds described in the literature suggest that flow injection atomic spectrometry may be emerging as an analytical methodology analogs to the variety of procedures encompassed by terms such as liquid chromatography in the vocabulary of the analytical methodology for molecular species.
Copper Calcium Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry

"Second Coming Of Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1992 Volume 261, Issue 1-2 Pages 3-10
Jaromir Rika

Abstract: This general review covers such aspects as stopped-flow and sequential injection, gradient techniques, and improvements in instrumentation, especially detection. (38 references). The state of art of the flow injection technique is reviewed, with 38 refs., and its future development is outlined by emphasizing the importance of stopped-flow and sequential injection methodologies and by discussing common aspects of flow injection and chromatography techniques.

"Flow Injection Analysis Of Trace Elements By Use Of Catalytic Reactions"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1992 Volume 261, Issue 1-2 Pages 167-182
Takuji Kawashima*, Shigenori Nakano

Abstract: This review covers the mechanism of catalytic reactions involving trace elements, together with catalytic flow injection methods for the determination of Fe, Mn, Cu, Co, V, Cr, Mo and Se, as well as halides and other anions. Representative examples are given of organic compounds used in the indicator reactions. Comparison with batch methods shows that flow injection methods are sometimes less sensitive than their manual counterparts, but afford satisfactory accuracy and precision and have certain advantages (94 references). A review with 94 references. Catalytic reactions have importance in trace analyzes for elements, and kinetic-catalytic methods of anal. based on catalytic reactions have progressed recently. The change in a phys. property such as absorbance, fluorescence, chemiluminescence or electrode potential of a system with time is usually monitored in kinetic-catalytic methods, as these methods include time as a measured variable. Flow injection analysis (FIA) is considered to be a suitable technique for catalytic methods of analysis, i.e., the reaction can easily be controlled by fixing the flow rate of solutions and the length of the reaction coil, yielding reproducible mixing. The adaptation of FIA to catalytic methods can lead to many advantages such as higher precision, better detection limits and rapid sample throughput. After a brief review of the catalytic action of elements in redox reactions, the use of the catalytic reactions in FIA methods is discussed through representative examples.
Iron Manganese Copper Cobalt Vanadium Chromium Molybdenum Selenium Fluorescence Chemiluminescence Spectrophotometry Electrochemical analysis

"Dispersion Phenomena In Flow Injection Systems"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1992 Volume 267, Issue 1 Pages 1-24
R. DeLon Hull, Robert E. Malick and John G. Dorsey*

Abstract: This review discusses the various models reported to describe sample dispersion in both non-reactive and reactive systems. Predictive models (which describe only the dispersion, e.g., in a flow injection manifold) and descriptive models (which may also describe dispersion in the injection, detection and connecting parts of the assembly) are reviewed. (112 references). A review 112 references. Reproducible dispersion is the basis for anal. by flow injection (FI) methods and is also used in several other sample handling and anal. systems (e.g., liquid chromatography connecting tubing, injectors, detectors, and post-column reactors). However, a uniformly acceptable understanding or description of dispersion is currently not available. Theoretical treatments (mathematical models) of dispersion were developed for both nonreactive (sample does not react with carrier) and kinetic (sample and carrier react) systems. Historically, chemical engineering hydraulic models were used as predictive estimators for FI response curves. These predictive models typically describe only the dispersion in the FI manifold and do not incorporate the influence of the injection, detection, or connecting components of the system. Recently, descriptive models which use deconvolution of the response curve to describe the dispersion produced by the anal. system were reported. This review details the various approaches that were used to describe dispersion in FI systems and includes both predictive and descriptive models.

"Electrochemical Detection For Flow Analysis And Liquid Chromatography: Present Status And Some Roads To The Future"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1993 Volume 273, Issue 1-2 Pages 435-441
Karel Stul&iacute;k*

Abstract: A review is presented, with 57 references. It is suggested that the most promising research areas will include micro and ultra-micro electrodes, modified sensors such as those involving biochemical processes, and multi-channel detection techniques.
Electrochemical analysis LC Electrode

"Solid-surface Photoluminescence And Flow Analysis: A Happy Marriage"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1993 Volume 283, Issue 1 Pages 367-378
Alfredo Sanz-Medel*

Abstract: The basic principle of photoluminescence of an organic molecule is described, and methods of conventional photoluminescence at solid surfaces are reviewed. The use of optical sensing at solid surfaces for detection in flow techniques is discussed, with particular reference to photoluminescence and means of achieving this at room temperature Applications of solid-surface photoluminescence in flow systems are outlined, including the determination of cations, anions and gases, the detection of O2 in enzymatic reactions, and the determination of antibiotics. (49 references).
Antibiotics Anions Cations Luminescence

"Trends In Kinetic Methods Of Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1993 Volume 283, Issue 1 Pages 453-470
Stanley R. Crouch*

Abstract: The major trends considered in this review are the increasing use of 'intelligent automation' and multi-dimensional instrumentation, developments in data processing techniques, error-compensation methods and multi-component kinetic procedures, new applications, and further time-dependent responses that can be exploited. (92 references).

"Flow Injection Immunoassays"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1993 Volume 283, Issue 1 Pages 421-428
G. G&uuml;bitz*, C. Shellum

Abstract: This review concentrates on heterogeneous immunoassays, and is illustrated by examples of flow injection EIA with electrochemical detection, and flow injection immunoassays with spectrophotometric, fluorimetric or chemiluminescence detection. (26 references).
Immunoassay Electrochemical analysis Fluorescence Chemiluminescence

"Flow Injection Analysis With Bulk Extraction Based Optical Sensor Membranes"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1994 Volume 294, Issue 1 Pages 49-56
Peter C. Hauser* and J. Christopher Litten

Abstract: A review is presented of some applications of optical sensing membranes as solid-phase photometric detectors in inorganic FIA. The membranes contain one or more selective ionophores or lipophilic pH indicators in a PVC matrix. Examples of test applications to determinations of Ca, K, Zn, ammonium and nitrate are described and commended as alternatives to flow injection potentiometry, with simpler operation and similar selectivities and detection limits. Light-emitting diode-photodiode transducer detectors were used. (28 references).
Calcium Potassium Zinc Ammonium Nitrate Industrial Electrode Spectrophotometry Potentiometry Sample preparation Sensor

"Mathematical Modeling Of Flow Injection Systems"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1995 Volume 308, Issue 1-3 Pages 36-66
Spas D. Kolev

Abstract: Existing mathematical models of flow injection manifolds were classified on the basis of the main principles on which they were constructed. The models were also compared with respect to their predictive power, the complexity of their mathematical treatment and the requirement for computation time when applied to single-line and conjugated two-line flow injection systems. The axially dispersed plug flow model was found to give an acceptable compromise between mathematical simplicity and precision.

"Flow Injection Analysis: Leaving Its Teen-years And Maturing. A Personal Reminiscence Of Its Conception And Early Development"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1995 Volume 308, Issue 1-3 Pages 3-13
Elo Harald Hansen*

Abstract: The development of flow injection analysis was outlined from its conception in 1974. The rapid growth and ready acceptance of this technique in many diverse fields of analytical chemistry is discussed.

"Flow Injection Renewable Surface Techniques"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1995 Volume 308, Issue 1-3 Pages 14-19
Jaromir Ruzicka

Abstract: The principles of flow injection - renewable surface techniques are presented. The technique uses polymer particles, such as those used in chromatography, as reagent carriers. A small amount of the polymer was injected into the carrier stream and deposited in a jet-ring cell prior to injection of the analyte. Two examples of this technique ware described, namely: (i) the competitive immunoassay of the herbicide imazethepyr with fluorimetric detection; and (ii) the determination of Cr(VI) with reflectance spectrophotometric detection. For (i) imazethepyr competes with fluorescein-labelled imazethepyr for antimidazine mAb attached to Protein A conjugated beads. The calibration range was 5-5000 ng/ml and the RSD was 5% at the 2500 ng/ml level. For (ii) the reagent 1,5-diphenylcarbazide was adsorbed on to Polysorb C-18 beads. The calibration graph for Cr(VI) was linear for 10^-200 ng/ml at 540 nm and with a 500 µL injection volume.
Chromium Imazethapyr Spectrophotometry Fluorescence

"Antibodies For Immunosensors. A Review"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1997 Volume 347, Issue 1-2 Pages 177-186
Bertold Hock*

Abstract: A review of the merits and limitations of immunosensors is presented. Immunosensors consist of specific antibodies immobilized on or near the transducer. The quality of the immunosensor is directly related to the affinity of the antibody for the target analyte. Sensors of this type are generally used for single measurements or quasi-continuous measurements in flow injection immunoanalysis systems. Multi-analyte immunosensors based on the used of antibodies with different cross-reactivities produce response patterns which allow structurally similar analytes to be identified and quantified. The development of this methodology will be accelerated by applying recombinant techniques to antibody production. (21 references).
Immunoassay Sensor

"Membrane Introduction Mass-spectrometry"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1997 Volume 350, Issue 3 Pages 257-271
N. Srinivasan, R. C. Johnson, N. Kasthurikrishnan, P. Wong and R. G. Cooks*

Abstract: An overview of membrane introduction mass spectrometry (MIMS) is presented and comparisons are made with other direct sample introduction techniques. Special attention is given to the unique advantages and the limitations of newer variants on the MIMS technique, including affinity MIMS, reverse-phase and trap MIMS. The salient features of the interfaces used in MIMS are summarized and the various membrane materials commonly used are delineated. The applicability of MIMS is illustrated via discussion of (i) bioreactor monitoring (represented by yeast fermentation), (ii) environmental monitoring (illustrated by analysis of contaminated ground water samples) and (iii) online chemical reaction monitoring (exemplified by the photolysis of aryl esters). The applicability of MIMS to the analysis of environmental samples, including complex mixtures in water, air and soil, is noted. 77 References
Water Environmental Environmental Fermentation broth Mass spectrometry

"Miniaturization A Well-defined Trend In Separation And Preconcentration Techniques"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1997 Volume 351, Issue 1-3 Pages 23-40
M. D. Luque de Castro*, and L. G&aacute;miz-Gracia

Abstract: An overview of the state-of-the-art on miniaturisation concerning the different types of separation techniques is presented. Four groups of these techniques can be distinguished. 105 References
GC Fluorescence Mass spectrometry Spectrophotometry Sample preparation

"Strengths And Limitations Of Immunoassays For Effective And Efficient Use For Pesticide Analysis In Water Samples: A Review"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1998 Volume 362, Issue 1 Pages 3-34
Marie-Claire Hennion* and Dami&agrave; Barcelo

Abstract: Immunoassay techniques provide a simple, powerful and inexpensive method for pesticide analysis. However, the acceptance of immunoassays is dependent on the demonstration of quality and validity compared to more traditional techniques. In this review, primarily, the knowledge and the fundamentals of immunoassay methods are given in order to make good use of immunoassays, especially of ELISA tests. Special attention is given to a better understanding of the high selectivity and sensitivity which is attained for some immunoassays and not for others. It is also explained why some immunoassays are a quantitative method whereas others can only be used as a screening method. The cross-reactivity process, the effect of the sample matrix and the data interpretation are illustrated by numerous examples from the literature. Other formats, especially flow injection immunoassays, dipstick immunoassay and liposome-amplified immunoassays are presented. Quality assurance and guidelines for validation and use are given.
Pesticides Immunoassay

"Microwave-assisted Sample Decomposition In Flow Analysis"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1998 Volume 366, Issue 1-3 Pages 63-79
Marcela Burguera and Jos&eacute; Luis Burguera*

Abstract: Digestion is the most demanding step in sample preparation, and its aim is to break the sample into more simple constituents with the aid of time, heat and reagents using different devices. Microwave heating emerged in the analytical field to dramatically improve the digestion process conventional wet digestion procedures with conductive heating that took several hours and reduced them to minutes in many cases. Additionally, the development of online microwave systems proved them to be simple, relatively safe to use, provide a decrease in the blank values, reduce the contamination risk when completely closed systems were used, applicable to samples of different natures and completely fit for automation. The automated procedures developed so far enable online coupling to powerful determination methods such as flame, hydride generation and electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry and electroanal. methods or to hybrid techniques such as liquid chromatography-atomic absorption spectrometry or liquid chromatography-atomic emission-mass spectrometry, which have widened the application field to speciation studies. The most recent advances in flow injection-microwave sample treatment for the determination of different chemical species by these techniques will be outlined in this review with 62 refs.
Sample preparation

"Recent Trends In The Application Of Microdialysis In Bioprocesses"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1998 Volume 374, Issue 2-3 Pages 111-135
Nelson Torto, a, Thomas Laurellb, Lo Gortona,* and Gy&ouml;rgy Marko-Vargac

Abstract: This review presents the recent and possible future development trends in the application of microdialysis in biotechnological processes. Microdialysis is compared to other sampling strategies for bioprocess monitoring. An analysis of the microdialysis experiment, different probe designs, membrane characteristics and performance as reflected by the extraction fraction and the application to different bioprocesses is given.
HPLC Amperometry

"Procedures For The Storage And Digestion Of Natural Waters For The Determination Of Filterable Reactive Phosphorus, Total Filterable Phosphorus And Total Phosphorus"
Anal. Chim. Acta 1998 Volume 375, Issue 1-2 Pages 5-47
W. Maher* and L. Woo

Abstract: A review, with 150 references, is given. An overview of the forms of P species likely to be encountered in natural waters and the implications for the measurement of filterable and total P is given. Procedures reported in the literature for the storage and digestion of water samples for filterable reactive P (FRP), total filterable P (TFP) and total P (TP) measurements are summarized and the advantages and limitations of methods discussed. Water samples for FRP and TFP measurements need to be filtered immediately on collection as exchange on and off particles may occur in the sample container. Slow freezing of filtered or turbid water samples in acid washed low density polyethylene bottles appears to be satisfactory for the long term storage (years) of a variety of water sample types. Storage of water samples at room temperature or refrigeration (1-5°C) with a preservative is suitable only for short term storage (days-months). If water samples contain <20 µg P/L, adsorption to containers may be significant. Batch digestion of samples with alkaline or acid peroxodisulfate using autoclave or microwave heating offers the advantages of ease, simplicity and precision. Good recoveries of P from a range of P compounds containing P-O-P, C-O-P and C-P bonds expected in natural waters have been reported. If turbid samples are to be analyzed, caution must be exercised to ensure that the C or suspended solids concentration. does not exceed the capacity of the digestion procedure to oxidize the C present and release occluded P from particulate materials. Better recoveries of P from turbid water samples are achieved using microwave heating with closed vessels, probably because of the higher temps. and pressures generated. The use of online heating (microwave, thermal induced) coupled with flow injection analysis and using peroxodisulfate or an oxidizing acid mixture should also allow the automation of TFP and TP measurements. Reliable procedures for the removal of unwanted particulate material prior to or after the digestion step need to be developed.
Phosphorus Water Environmental Waste Sample preparation

"The Changing Face Of Laboratory Automation : Present And Future Trends"
Talanta 1980 Volume 27, Issue 11 Pages 835-851
Peter B. Stockwell

Abstract: A review is given of current developments in automation of laboratory methods, with emphasis on the managerial outlook demanded from the modern analytical chemist and on the underlying philosophy of automation. The influence of microprocessor technology on laboratory instrumentation is discussed, and future trends predicted.

"Observations On A Dropping-mercury Electrochemical Detector For Flow Injection Analysis And HPLC"
Talanta 1981 Volume 28, Issue 4 Pages 251-254
Samuel J. Lyle and M. Idris Saleh

Abstract: An electrochemical detector cell having a dropping-mercury working electrode and an Ag/ AgCl reference electrode is examined with reference to applications in flow-injection analysis and high-performance liquid chromatography. The working electrode, fed by a horizontal capillary, is capable of delivering mercury at fast dropping rates which can be varied by a control device in the cell. Examples of application to inorganic and organic electroreducible species are considered and advantages and limitations relative to other electrochemical detector devices are discussed.
Electrode HPLC Polarography

"Flow Injection Analysis A Review Of Its Early History"
Talanta 1981 Volume 28, Issue 11 Pages 789-797
Kent K. Stewart

Abstract: Review

"Flow Injection Analysis And Its Early History"
Talanta 1982 Volume 29, Issue 2 Pages 157-157
J. Ruzicka and E. H. Hansen

Abstract: Letter to the editor. The definition of flow-injection analysis by K. K. Stewart is too broad. The term should be used exclusively for methods which involve three requirements: sample injection, reproducible timing, and in particular, controlled dispersion of the injected sample zone.

"Flow Injection Analysis In Clinical Chemistry"
Talanta 1984 Volume 31, Issue 10B Pages 879-888
Clifford Riley, Bernard F. Rocks and Roy A. Sherwood

Abstract: The application of classical flow injection analysis (f.i.a.), in which the sample is injected as a discrete portion, in clinical chemistry is critically assessed. Sampling valves employed are often inappropriate as relatively high proportions of sample are wasted. An improved alternative is described, based on precise aspiration of the sample via a probe. Applications of f.i.a. to clinical analyzes are discussed with particular reference to this modification and numerous data are presented for the analyzes of clinical specimens.
Clinical analysis

"Speciation Studies By Flow Injection Analysis"
Talanta 1986 Volume 33, Issue 1 Pages 45-50
M. D. Luque De Castro

Abstract: A review is presented of the cited technique in inorganic and environmental analysis. (53 references).
Environmental

"Continuous Monitoring By Unsegmented Flow Techniques. State Of The Art And Perspectives"
Talanta 1989 Volume 36, Issue 5 Pages 591-599
M. D. Luque de Castro

Abstract: A review is presented, with 51 references, covering flow injection analysis as an online process control technique and the application of unsegmented flow analysis for continuous monitoring.

"Chemically Modified Electrodes In Liquid Chromatography [and Flow Injection Analysis] Detection: A Review"
Talanta 1991 Volume 38, Issue 1 Pages 1-16
Richard P. Baldwin*, Karsten N. Thomsen,

Abstract: Recent trends in the use of chemically modified electrodes are reviewed, with 96 references. Specific application areas are identified as those involving: (i) permselective coatings; (ii) immobilized electron transfer mediators to catalyse slow reactions; (iii) enzyme modifiers to provide biological surface activity; and (iv) ion-exchange coatings for electrochemical detection of non-electroactive anions and cations.
LC Electrode Ion exchange

"Solid Interfaces As Analytical Problem Solvers In Flow Injection Analysis"
Talanta 1993 Volume 40, Issue 1 Pages 21-36
M. D. Luque de Castro and M. T. Tena,

Abstract: The advantages of using solid interfaces in flow injection systems are illustrated by selected examples. The interfaces are classified according to whether they provide enhanced sensitivity, increased selectivity, decreased sample and reagent consumption or ease of automation of the preliminary steps of the analytical process. Some also allow the implementation of multi-determination methods or indirect determinations. Other problems that are solved by using solid interfaces include the generation of unstable reagents, minimization of heat losses, simultaneous sample and matrix measurements and sequential development of the different steps of a process.
Sample preparation

"Hyphenated Flow Injection Systems And High Discrimination Instruments"
Talanta 1995 Volume 42, Issue 2 Pages 151-169
M. D. Luque de Castro and M. T. Tena,

Abstract: A review is presented of state-of-the-art FIA coupled to instruments capable of providing multidetection and/or multi-information. Tables are presented of the methods of FIA coupled with ICP-AES, ICP-MS, FTIR, MS, MECA, NMR and flame IR emission spectrometry with references. Interfaces, sample introduction, sample handling, online separation processes and speciation studies are discussed. (190 references).
Mass spectrometry Mass spectrometry Nuclear magnetic resonance Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry

"Speciation With Unsegmented Continuous Systems"
Talanta 1995 Volume 42, Issue 9 Pages 1215-1227
M. D. Luque de Castro*, D. W. Bryce and A. Izquierdo,

Abstract: Speciation applications of the flow injection technique are reviewed in relation to the hydrodynamic manifold components that are adapted for this purpose. Alterations include double halting of the propulsion system, coupling of injection valves, modifications of the transport-reaction zone, use of switching valves and merging and splitting points. Several diagrams are presented. Detector remodeling, the use of sensors and special detectors and data processing methods are also discussed in connection with the flow injection - chromatography coupling. Future trends are considered. (117 references).

"Electrochemical Analysis Of Surfactants An Overview"
Talanta 1996 Volume 43, Issue 4 Pages 507-519
M. Gerlachea, J. M. Kauffmanna,*, G. Quarina, J. C. Virea, G. A. Bryantb and J. M. Talbotb

Abstract: This work presents an overview of electrochemical techniques, namely potentiometry, amperometry, tensammetry, electrocapillary measurements and biosensors, recently applied for the determination of surfactants.
Surfactants Amperometry Potentiometry Electrode HPLC Sensor Sensor

"Chemical Speciation By Flow Injection Analysis. A Review"
Talanta 1996 Volume 43, Issue 6 Pages 825-838
Luigi Campanellaa, Krystyna Pyrzyskab and Marek Trojanowiczc,*

Abstract: A review is presented of the speciation of trace metals, complexes and organometallics in natural matrices by FIA. The advantages of using FIA are discussed. (58 references).
Metals, trace Environmental

"Field Portable Flow Injection Analysers For Monitoring Of Air And Water Pollution"
Talanta 1996 Volume 43, Issue 6 Pages 915-925
Peter W. Alexandera,*, Lucy T. Di Benedettoa, Telis Dimitrakopoulosa, D. Brynn Hibbertb, J. Catherine Ngilab, Margaret Sequeirab and Damien Shielsb

Abstract: An overview of portable monitors for the analysis of aqueous and gas samples including chemical ion sensors, multi-sensor arrays, test kits, disposable test strips, submersible probes and gas analyzer.s is presented. The use of a portable flow injection potentiometric analyzer. and the monitoring of car exhaust gases, air pollution in houses and ethanol in alcoholic drinks are described. (29 references).
Environmental Environmental Beverage Potentiometry

"Microwave-assisted Sample Preparation In Analytical-chemistry"
Talanta 1996 Volume 43, Issue 8 Pages 1207-1268
Frank E. Smith* and Edward A. Arsenault

Abstract: The speed and efficiency of instrumentation for chemical analysis has improved dramatically over the past twenty years. Until recently, however, methods of sample preparation had not changed to keep pace, so this had become the slowest step in analytical chemistry methodology. The widespread adoption of domestic microwave ovens during the past twenty-five years has eventually led to their usage in chemical laboratories. Microwave technology has now advanced to the point where it is revolutionizing chemical sample preparation and chemical synthesis. Since the first application of a microwave oven for sample preparation in 1975, many microwave-assisted dissolution methods have been developed- these are applicable to virtually any kind of sample type. This review attempts to summarize all the microwave-assisted dissolution and digestion methods reported up to and including 1994. In addition, some very recent developments in continuous-flow automated dissolution systems are discussed, as is the emergence of databases and software packages related to the application of microwave technology to sample dissolution.
Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Sample preparation

"Analytical Methodology For Speciation Of Arsenic In Environmental And Biological Samples"
Talanta 1997 Volume 44, Issue 9 Pages 1581-1604
Marcela Burguera and Jos&eacute;Luis Burguera

Abstract: A literature search on the speciation of arsenic in environmental and biological samples shows an increasing interest of many researchers in the subject. Because of the low level of arsenic species in real samples, many problems related with its speciation remain unresolved: species instability during sampling, storage and sample treatment, incomplete recovery of all species, matrix interferences, lack of appropriate certified reference materials and of sensitive analytical methods, etc. These aspects are underlined in this paper. The continued development of new analytical procedures pretending to solve some of these problems claim for an up-to-date knowledge of the recent publications. Therefore, this paper pretends to review the latest publications on the chemical speciation of arsenic, emphasizing the increasing activity in the development of accurate and precise analytical methods. In most of the cases, separation and pre-concentration is necessary, followed by element-specific detection for sensitivity improvement. Hydride generation following separation procedures (e.g., ion-exchange or high performance liquid chromatography) coupled to atomic absorption or atomic emission detectors proved to have sufficient sensitivity to monitor arsenic exposure, although restricts the analysis to hydride-forming species. Modified procedures including some kind of heating in the presence of highly oxidizing agents have proved successful to completely decompose the arsenic containing compounds to arsenate and so to extend the range of compounds which can be determined by these methods. On-line arrangements have the additional advantage of avoiding excessive sample handling, although some of them involve numerous steps and others are too costly to be recommended for routine use. The analytical figures of merits, specially detection limits are given for most of the methods in order to afford comparison and judge possible applicability. These studies, which have been approached in many different ways, would lead to knowledge that are determinant in the understanding of the cycle of this element in environment and of its physiological and toxicological behavior in the living organisms.
Arsenic Environmental Biological Sample preparation Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry HPLC

"Principles And Analytical Applications Of Acoustooptic Tunable Filters, An Overview"
Talanta 1997 Volume 45, Issue 2 Pages 237-248
Chieu D. Tran

Abstract: Advantages of acousto-optic tunable filters have been exploited to develop novel analytical instruments which are not feasible otherwise. The instrumentation development and unique features of such AOTF based instruments including the multidimensional fluorimeter, the multiwavelength thermal lens spectrometer, the near-infrared spectrometer based on erbium doped fiber amplifier (EDFA), and detectors for high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and flow injection analysis (FIA), will be described. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. 32 References
Spectrophotometry Fluorescence Spectrometry Spectrophotometry

"Application Of Ternary And Multicomponent Complexes To Spectrophotometric And Spectrofluorimetric Analysis Of Inorganics"
Talanta 1998 Volume 46, Issue 5 Pages 765-813
T. Prasada Rao*, M. L. P. Reddy and A. Ramalingom Pillai

Abstract: The application of ternary and multicomponent complexes in spectrophotometric and spectrofluorimetric determination of trace elements is reviewed. Newer types of color systems employing mixed ligand, surfactant sensitized, ion-association, flotation, derivative and FIA systems are described. Separate sections are devoted to advances in both spectrophotometric and spectrofluorimetric determination of individual elements. Future trends in spectrophotometric and spectrofluorimetric analysis are discussed.
Metals, rare earth Fluorescence Spectrophotometry

"Inorganic And Methylmercury Speciation In Environmental Samples"
Talanta 1998 Volume 47, Issue 3 Pages 509-524
J. E. S&aacute;nchez Ur&iacute;a* and A. Sanz-Medel

Abstract: The different strategies for mercury species analysis in environmentally-related samples are reviewed. After consideration of the main different steps involved in the speciation of mercury, such steps are discussed with more extension for mercuric ion and methylmercury. The different approaches for preservation of these mercury species during the storage of samples are considered. Different ways for the extraction of mercury species from the several possible environmental compartments and the possibilities for pre-concentration of such species after previous derivatization reactions are discussed. Mercuric ions and methylmercury chromatographic and non-chromatographic separations along with different techniques used for sensitive and selective detection of mercury are also critically reviewed. Ranges of published detection limits achievable for such species determination, by using hyphenated techniques between a chromatographic separation and a specific atomic detector are also given.
Mercury(II) Methylmercury ion River

"The Impact Of Microprocessors On Analytical Instrumentation. A Review"
Analyst 1981 Volume 106, Issue 1260 Pages 257-282
D. Betteridge and T. B. Goad

Abstract: In the last 6 years, microprocessors* have progressed from being a novel, exciting development of potential interest to analytical chemists into part of the everyday experience of the populace. Technical advances are still being made at a phenomenal rate, but it is possible now to survey the scene from the point of view of the analytical chemist to assess the impact of microprocessors on analytical instrumentation, to make some sense of the technical aspects and the jargon used to describe them, and to discuss approaches to the application of the microcomputer. It is therefore practical and economic to use them in small-scale inst rumentation such as titrators, polarographs and balances. Two years ago, it was less profitable to use microcomputers for large instruments such as mass spectrometers because of their relatively small memory and speed of operation. However, improvements have been so rapid that these considerations are now less relevant. In analytical instrumentation they can fulfil a control function, which may range from a simple replacement of mechanical or electromechanical parts with a chip, to execution of a program of sequential operations that comprise the total analytical determination. In addition, they may be used with advantage for data acquisition and for data processing, great advances having been made in respect of the latter over the last year. These aspects are discussed in detail in this paper, but first the development of microprocessors and the current availability of microcomputers will be reviewed.

"Comparison Between The Performances Of An Electrochemical Detector Flow Cell In A Potentiometric And An Amperometric Measuring System Using Glucose As A Test Compound"
Analyst 1982 Volume 107, Issue 1279 Pages 1261-1271
K. Brunt

Abstract: A wall jet type of electrochemical detector flow cell was constructed and tested in an amperometric and in a potentiometric detection system. In the amperometric detection system the test compound, glucose, was electrochemically oxidized at the working electrode. In combination with a simple flow injection analysis system the lower limit of detection was 20 p.p.m. of glucose whereas the upper limit of the linear dynamic response range was about 2000 p.p.m. of glucose.Using the potentiometric detection system, the change in redox potential of an Fe(CN)63--Fe(CN)64- solution, owing to the chemical oxidation of glucose by Fe(CN)63-, was measured. The response of the detection system at solutions with different [Fe(CN)63-] to [Fe(CN)64-] ratios was almost Nernstian. In a nitrogen segmented continuous flow analysis system, using Fe(CN)63- as the oxidising agent, a dynamic response range of 2-900 p.p.m. of glucose was measured.For the amperometric and potentiometric detection system different response times and volumes were measured as a function of the flow-rate and the nozzle height in the flow cell.
Glucose Amperometry Potentiometry

"Flow Injection Sample Introduction Methods For Atomic Absorption Spectrometry"
Analyst 1983 Volume 108, Issue 1283 Pages 153-158
Julian F. Tyson, John M. H. Appleton and Ahyar B. Idris

Abstract: The essential features of flow injection analysis are described and the use of flow injection methodology for sample introduction for flame atomic-absorption spectrometry is briefly reviewed. A flow injection analogue of the standard additions method has been devised and applied to the analysis of chromium in some BCS standard steels. The results showed good agreement with the certificate values. The use of a concentration gradient forming mixing chamber to provide a novel method of rapid, single-standard calibration is described and the results of preliminary experiments with magnesium show the method to be viable. The potential usefulness of both methods is critically evaluated.
Chromium Magnesium Industrial Spectrophotometry

"Determination Of Chromium In Steel By Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry Using A Flow Injection Standard Additions Method"
Analyst 1984 Volume 109, Issue 1 Pages 23-26
Julian F. Tyson and Ahyar B. Idris

Abstract: The determination of Cr in steel by AAS is briefly reviewed, and the basis of the flow injection standard-additions method (in which the sample solution is used as the carrier stream) is described. The effects of Fe concentration, fuel-to-oxidant ratio and dissolution procedure were investigated, and a method that requires no releasing agents and involves use of pure Cr standard solution is described. The selection of appropriate flow injection conditions by using the single well-stirred mixing chamber model for dispersion is discussed. The procedure permits a straightforward instrument-optimizing strategy to be used and can be readily adapted to the determination of more than one element in each sample.
Chromium Industrial Alloy Spectrophotometry

"Simultaneous Determinations In Flow Injection Analysis. A Review"
Analyst 1984 Volume 109, Issue 4 Pages 413-419
Maria Dolores Luque de Castro and Miguel Valc&aacute;rcel Cases

Abstract: In flow injection analysis (f.i.a.), the different characteristics resulting from the relative location of several detectors allows a sub-classification into either series or parallel configuration. Detection by potentiometric techniques is common in the series mode, and sequential ion-selective electrodes permit the simultaneous determination of several species, such as alkali or alkaline-earth metals, in serum. With the detectors in parallel, consideration is given to single-injection operation, with splitting of the sample, simultaneous multiple injection and zone sampling. Simultaneous determinations with use of a single detector are discussed in terms of sequential injection, stream-splitting with two cells aligned in the same optical path, with use of a pH gradient or f.i.a., and ion-exchange association. Examples of determinations are given; thus, with ion exchange, Zn and Cd in the range 10 to 100 and 20 to 200 ng mL-1, respectively, can be determined at a rate of 3 min per sample. Methods of f.i.a. based on differential kinetics are fully described, and difficulties inherent in this methodology are mentioned.
Cadmium Zinc Blood Serum Ion exchange Electrode Potentiometry

"Parameters Affecting Sensitivity And Precision In The Combination Of Flow Injection Analysis With Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry"
Analyst 1984 Volume 109, Issue 8 Pages 1091-1094
Michael W. Brown and Jaromir Ruzicka

Abstract: Factors affecting sensitivity and precision in combined flow injection analysis and atomic-absorption spectrophotometry were investigated. Provided the nebuliser aspiration rates and carrier stream flow-rates are carefully chosen, better precision and sensitivity than in conventional manual techniques can be achieved. To obtain high flow-rates into the nebuliser a boost to the carrier stream, immediately prior to the nebuliser, is proposed. For applications such as the ion-exchange pre-concentration of heavy metals, this allows a low rate of flow for the main carrier stream whilst maintaining a higher rate into the nebuliser.
Ion exchange Spectrophotometry

"Flow Injection Analysis Techniques For Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. A Review"
Analyst 1985 Volume 110, Issue 5 Pages 419-429
Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: A review is presented of flow injection analysis methods for flame AAS, with reference to apparatus, applications, and performance in comparison with conventional procedures. (82 references).
Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry

"Automated Flow Injection Spectrophotometric Determination Of Some Phenothiazines Using Iron Perchlorate: Applications In Drug Assays, Content Uniformity, And Dissolution Studies"
Analyst 1986 Volume 111, Issue 3 Pages 313-318
Michael A. Koupparis and Antonie Barcuchov&aacute;

Abstract: Solutions (200 µL) of pharmaceutical formulations containing a phenothiazine were fed at 2.4 mL min-1 into an automated flow injection analysis system with 2.75 mM Fe(ClO4)3 - 10 M HClO4 solution as oxidizing agent and water as carrier solution. The products were passed to a spectrophotometer set at the λmax of the individual drug. Chlorpromazine, promethazine, promazine, methotrimeprazine, thioproperazine, fluphenazine, trifluoperazine and thioridazine were determined in the range 10 to 250 µg mL-1. The precision was better than 1% and a measurement rate of 120 h-1 could be attained. The method was evaluated by studying interference effects and recoveries and by the analysis of commercial formulations, the results of which were compared with those from the official USP method. The technique was used in content uniformity tests and for monitoring the dissolution of solid dosage forms in 0.1 M HCl.
Chlorpromazine Promethazine Promazine Methotrimeprazine Thioproperazine Fluphenazine Pharmaceutical Spectrophotometry

"Reverse Flow Injection Formation Of Monitorands In Direct And Indirect Online Flow Injection Analysis Methods"
Analyst 1986 Volume 111, Issue 7 Pages 859-860
Arnold G. Fogg

Abstract: The concept of the reverse flow injection analysis formation of a monitorand, which is not the determinand, is considered. The monitorand is caused to react with the injected determinand, which is being determined indirectly, dispersing in the normal flow injection analysis manner. The theoretical shapes of reverse flow injection analysis signals are considered on a non-mathematical basis. The method is illustrated by an iodimetric method for determination of SO32-.
Electrochemical analysis

"Enzymes As Analytical Reagents: Substrate Determinations With Soluble And With Immobilized Enzyme Preparations"
Analyst 1987 Volume 112, Issue 6 Pages 719-727
Horacio A. Mottola

Abstract: Two basic characteristics of enzymes as analytical reagents for the determination of substrates are the focal point of this Plenary Lecture, firstly the high degree of selectivity (or even specificity) offered by enzymes and secondly the regeneration afforded by enzymes as catalysts. Various approaches to the monitoring of enzyme-catalyzed reactions (e.g., direct monitoring, coupling to indicator reactions and amplification by cycling) are considered in detail.

"Selectivity And Kinetics In Analytical Chemistry"
Analyst 1987 Volume 112, Issue 6 Pages 729-737
Miguel Valc&aacute;rcel

Abstract: The positive influence on selectivity of physical, chemical and physico-chemical kinetics in the different steps of the analytical process is presented and discussed through representative examples. The selectivity levels achieved in situations of increasing dynamism are critically compared.

"Some Aspects Of Flow Electroanalysis"
Analyst 1989 Volume 114, Issue 12 Pages 1519-1525
Karel Stul&iacute;k

Abstract: A review is presented, with 37 references, of the use of potentiometry and amperometry in flow systems, including those for flow injection analysis and HPLC. Voltammetric techniques for flow measurements are compared. A review is presented, with 37 references, of the use of potentiometry and amperometry in flow systems, including those for flow injection analysis and HPLC. Voltammetric techniques for flow measurements are compared.
HPLC Electrochemical analysis Potentiometry Amperometry Voltammetry

"Integration Of Reaction (retention) And Spectroscopic Detection In Continuous-flow Systems"
Analyst 1990 Volume 115, Issue 6 Pages 699-703
Miguel Valc&aacute;rcel and M. D. Luque de Castro

Abstract: A review is presented, with 33 references, of the essential features and potential of biochemical and chemical sensors, based on the immobilization of the analytes, reagents and products of a reaction in the flow cell of a spectroscopic detector (stopped-flow flow injection analysis). The kinetic implications of such reactions is also discussed.
Sensor

"Flow Injection Analysis And Chromatography: Twins Or Siblings. Plenary Lecture"
Analyst 1990 Volume 115, Issue 5 Pages 475-486
Jaromir Ruzicka and Gary D. Christian

Abstract: A review is presented, with 58 references, of LC and flow injection, which reveals their common background in solution chemistry, highlighting their compatibility and promoting injection technique development.
LC

"Solvent Extraction Of Trace Amounts Of Fluoride Prior To, Mainly, Spectrometry - A Review: Recent Advances In The Alizarin Fluorine Blue Approach"
Analyst 1991 Volume 116, Issue 4 Pages 379-385
Marie M. Ferris and Michael A. Leonard

Abstract: The Alizarin fluorine blue - La method of Johnson and Leonard (J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 1961, 13, 164T) was modified. Water (0.5 l) was mixed with 2 mL of acetate buffer solution (pH 4.5), 10 mL of 0.5 mM Alizarin fluorine blue, 60 mL of acetone, and immediately after the addition of 10 mL of 1.75 M lanthanum nitrate, with 96 mL of 0.2 M diphenylguanidine in isobutyl alcohol with shaking every 15 min for 30 s over a 4-h period. The organic phase was separated, the extract and ethanolic washings were diluted to 25 mL with ethanol and, with use of the standard additions method, the absorbance of the solution was measured at 580 nm vs. a reagent blank. The calibration graph was rectilinear up to 1 µg of F-, with a detection limit of 40 ng L-1 and a coefficient of variation of 0.6% for 4 µg of F-. The method may act as a check on results by ion-chromatographic methods at low levels of F- or as a basis for a flow injection method.
Fluoride Spectrophotometry Sample preparation

"Cadmium - Toxicology And Analysis - A Review"
Analyst 1991 Volume 116, Issue 6 Pages 549-568
Kevin Robards and Paul Worsfold

Abstract: A review is presented, with 593 references, of monitoring procedures, sample preparation and quantification of Cd in various samples, including environmental and biological materials and food.
Cadmium HPLC Ion exchange Neutron activation analysis Spectrophotometry Voltammetry

"Metal Determination And Metal Speciation By Liquid Chromatography - A Review"
Analyst 1991 Volume 116, Issue 12 Pages 1247-1273
Kevin Robards, Peter Starr and Emili&oagrave;s Patsalides

Abstract: A review is presented, with 446 references. The cited analyzes are discussed with particular emphasis on the role of complexation. Planar methods, low-pressure column chromatography, HPLC and SFC techniques are considered.
Metals, rare earth HPLC Spectrophotometry

"Determination Of Anions By Flow Injection. A Review"
Analyst 1991 Volume 116, Issue 11 Pages 1095-1111
Danhua Chen, M. D. Luque de Castro and Miguel Valc&aacute;rcel

Abstract: A review is presented, with 316 references, with discussion on flow injection configurations used, types of reaction used for the cited determination, types of detection, multi-determinations, selectivity and sensitivity, analysis of real samples and comparison with other techniques.
Anions, inorganic

"Overview Of Analytical Methods For Elemental Speciation"
Analyst 1992 Volume 117, Issue 3 Pages 563-570
Jon C. Van Loon and Ronald R. Barefoot

Abstract: A review is presented, with 64 references, with discussion of sampling selective extraction, coupled instrumental methods (chromatography coupled with, e.g., AAS or ICP), electrochemical methods and FIA in elemental speciation. Various methods for determining the elements most frequently studied are described. A review with 64 references. This paper describes a selection of the major developments in the field of anal. methodology for elemental speciation over the period from Jan. 1986 to Dec. 1990. Methods for a number of elements are highlighted. Judging by the number and diversity of published reports, there has been increasing interest and activity in the development of new and modified anal. methods. Further, it is very encouraging to observe the number of papers concerned with the accuracy and precision of such anal. methods, and with comparisons between two or more methods. Among electrochemical methods of analysis, anodic stripping voltammetry has provided an important basis for measurements of concentrations of labile metals in aqueous media. The fastest growing area of method development is the coupling of separation methods, usually chromatography, with a single- or multi-element detector. Most importantly, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry has recently been described as a very sensitive, multielement detector. The success of a coupled method is greatly dependent on a suitable interface. Several papers have been published recently describing useful interfaces. Chemical extraction procedures continue to occupy an important place. Applications of analytical elemental speciation methods have included environmental, biologocal, clinical, and geological samples. Methods for elements most frequently studied are discussed.
Voltammetry Mass spectrometry Sample preparation

"Flow-through (bio)chemical Sensors. Plenary Lecture"
Analyst 1993 Volume 118, Issue 6 Pages 593-600
Miguel Valc&aacute;rcel and Maria Dolores Luque de Castro

Abstract: A review is presented of the state-of-the-art and trends in biochemical and chemical sensors based on the integration of derivative analytical reactions, separation processes and detection. The generic features of flow-through (bio)chemical sensors are outlined. The integration of reactions (chemiluminescence, fluorescence) or separation methods (dialysis, gas diffusion, sorption, liquid - liquid extraction) with detection (optical, electroanalytical, mass thermal) is examined. Critical comparisons between matching probe-type and continuous-flow configurations are given. (89 references).
Chemiluminescence Fluorescence Electrochemical analysis Sensor Sample preparation

"Discovering Flow Injection: Journey From Sample To A Live Cell And From Solution To Suspension"
Analyst 1994 Volume 119, Issue 9 Pages 1925-1934
Jaromir Ruzicka

Abstract: A review is presented of some recent developments in the field of FIA. Topics covered include sequential injection, flow injection cytoanalysis and the flow injection on renewable surfaces (FI-RS) technique. Some current and possible future applications of the FI-RS technique are discussed. (40 references).

"Sequential Injection Analysis For Electrochemical Measurements And Process Analysis"
Analyst 1994 Volume 119, Issue 11 Pages 2309-2314
Gary D. Christian

Abstract: An overview is presented on sequential-injection analysis (SIA). The principles of SIA and some of its operational parameters are briefly described. Examples are provided to show that SIA is a versatile solution handling system for electrochemical and process systems. The examples given include coulometric titration with automated dilution, potentiometric studies using the matched potential method for assessing relative potentiometric selectivity coefficients, and the incorporation of the jet ring (fountain) cell in an SIA manifold for development of renewable reaction surfaces and sensors. (40 references).
Electrochemical analysis Coulometry Potentiometric stripping analysis

"Use Of Protein A As An Immunological Reagent And Its Application Using Flow Injection. A Review"
Analyst 1994 Volume 119, Issue 12 Pages 2769-2776
Derek A. Palmer, Martin T. French and James N. Miller

Abstract: A review is presented on the use of protein A as an immunological reagent. A historical background of protein A is given and the use of protein A as a ligand binder in both static and flow analysis formats is described. Particular attention is paid to how the use of protein A can be maximized in a flow-injection system. (127 references).
Blood Immunoassay

"Assessment Of Quality Of Flow Injection Methods Used In Food Analysis"
Analyst 1995 Volume 120, Issue 9 Pages 2393-2400
J. M. L&oacute;pez-Fern&aacute;ndez, A. R&iacute;os and M. Valc&aacute;rcel

Abstract: A review is presented of the quality of flow injection (FI) methods used in food analysis. Over 200 FI methods are evaluated for quality in terms of accuracy, applicability, precision, selectivity, sensitivity, determination range and sample throughput. A quality scale is proposed that enables the most appropriate method to be chosen for a given type of food analysis. (129 references).
Food

"Determination Of The Oxidation-states Of Iron In Natural-waters A Review"
Analyst 1995 Volume 120, Issue 11 Pages 2655-2663
Simo Pehkonen

Abstract: 92 references
Iron(2+) Iron(III) Sea Chemiluminescence Fluorescence Mass spectrometry Spectrophotometry Voltammetry

"Recent Developments In The Determination Of Precious Metals. A Review"
Analyst 1996 Volume 121, Issue 2 Pages 139-161
Yi Bin Qu

Abstract: A review is presented of developments in the determination of precious metals in recent years, with emphasis on applications. The precious metals covered in the review include the six platinum group metals, plus Au and Ag (785 references).
Metals, precious Spectrophotometry Mass spectrometry HPLC

"Development And Operating Characteristics Of Micro-flow Injection Analysis Systems Based On Electro-osmotic Flow. A Review"
Analyst 1997 Volume 122, Issue 1 Pages 1R-10R
S. J. Haswell

Abstract: A review is presented of the concepts and methodologies involved in the development of micro-FIA systems based on electro-osmotic flow. Aspects considered include the fabrication of such systems and also pump, injector, reactor and detector design. (98 references).

"Online Sample Pre-treatment Systems Interfaced To Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry"
Analyst 1998 Volume 123, Issue 4 Pages 561-569
Jos&eacute; Luis Burguera and Marcela Burguera

Abstract: A review with 98 references. Atomic spectrometric techniques working with a continuous supply of sample, such as flame atomic absorption spectrometry or inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry, are well suited for online connection through flow injection arrangements. For the determination of elements at lower concentrations, electrothermal atomization is often needed owing to the requirement for better detection limits. However, connecting a batch technique such as electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry to a continuous-flow or a flow injection system presents some fundamental difficulties, making it a real challenge for the anal. chemist to design suitable interfaces. There are different ways of interfacing the systems to each other; the available versions use either online sample treatment with off-line measurement or are completely online arrangements. Complex samples cannot be directly processed by this technique owing to severe matrix interferences, which were not minimized despite the development of efficient background correction devices. Successful matrix separation can be achieved online through solvent and sorbent extraction, precipitation and coprecipitation, volatile compound generation and liquid chromatography Also, transformation of the sample and/or its fractions into a form that can be analyzed in a graphite furnace often requires unpleasant, tedious and time-consuming digestion procedures. Microwave heating has emerged as a means of dramatically improving leaching, mineralization or digestion processes and has frequently been used with in-batch or online systems. This paper outlines the most recent advances in the development of flow injection-graphite furnace interfaces and also describes the online sample pre-treatment systems developed so far for electrothermal atomic absorption detection.
Spectrophotometry Sample preparation

"Flow Injection Techniques In Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry"
J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 1987 Volume 2, Issue 6 Pages 549-552
Cameron W. McLeod

Abstract: A review is presented, with sections on the principles of flow injection analysis, flow injection ICP-AES and flow injection ICP-MS. (48 references).
Mass spectrometry Spectrophotometry

"Study Of The Possible Benefits Of Flow Injection Sample Introduction For Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry"
J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 1989 Volume 4, Issue 2 Pages 191-194
Julian F. Tyson, Christina E. Adeeyinwo and Stephen R. Bysouth

Abstract: A brief review is presented, with 30 references, of flow injection techniques used in conjunction with atomic spectrometry. The possible benefits of flow injection sample introduction at reduced flow rates to reduce interference and improve detection limits were studied. Conclusions are that such sample introduction does not result in any fundamental differences in signals compared with conventional nebulization, in that different operating parameters are still required for different figures of merit. The best approach for optimum detection limits in flow injection sample introduction is to maximize the peak height and minimize noise. By generation of a volatile metal chelate in a flow injection manifold for subsequent determination and with appropriate solvent extraction and heated tubing, it is possible to increase considerably the atomization efficiency over conventional nebulization. A brief review is presented, with 30 references, of flow injection techniques used in conjunction with atomic spectrometry. The possible benefits of flow injection sample introduction at reduced flow rates to reduce interference and improve detection limits were studied. Conclusions are that such sample introduction does not result in any fundamental differences in signals compared with conventional nebulization, in that different operating parameters are still required for different figures of merit. The best approach for optimum detection limits in flow injection sample introduction is to maximize the peak height and minimize noise. By generation of a volatile metal chelate in a flow injection manifold for subsequent determination and with appropriate solvent extraction and heated tubing, it is possible to increase considerably the atomization efficiency over conventional nebulization.
Spectrophotometry

"Atomic Spectrometry Update: Clinical And Biological Materials, Foods And Beverages"
J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 1991 Volume 6, Issue 3 Pages 69R-107R
Simon Branch, Helen M. Crews, David J. Halls and Andrew Taylor

Abstract: This Update contains reviews on recent developments in the application of atomic spectrometry to the analysis of clinical and biological materials and of foods and beverages. These two reviews cover the references 90/1159-90/4166 and 91/1-91/825 which are listed fully as Atomic Spectrometry Update References in Volumes 5 and 6 of JAAS, respectively. A list of references to published papers in abbreviated form appears at the end of this Update. The Tables, in an improved format, summarise the methods and studies covered in these reviews. Last year's Update (J. Anal. Atomic Spectrom., 1990, 5, 75R) covered developments in the preceding year.
Particulates Food Beverage Biological Fluorescence Mass spectrometry Spectrophotometry Voltammetry Clinical analysis

"Advances In Atomic Absorption And Fluorescence Spectrometry And Related Techniques"
J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 1991 Volume 6, Issue 5 Pages 187R-220R
Steve J. Hill, John B. Dawson, W. John Price, Ian L. Shuttler and Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: In previous years, the third and fourth ASU reviews in JAAS have been devoted to Instrumentation and Atomization and Excitation, covering developments in equipment-procedures and fundamental processes, respectively. Many of the advances in analytical atomic spectrometry reported in the ASU references concern research in both of these areas and duplication of coverage was becoming difficult to avoid. As a separate ASU deals with all aspects of XRF and atomic mass spectrometry, it has been decided to create two new reviews on Atomic Emission Spectrometry and Atomic Absorption Spectrometry, Atomic Fluorescence Spectrometry and Related Techniques. The review on Atomic Emission Spectrometry may be found in JAAS, Volume 6, Issue 4. The present review describes developments in all aspects of atomic absorption spectrometry, atomic fluorescence spectrometry and related techniques, including fundamental processes and instrumentation, reported in the Atomic Spectrometry Updates References in JAAS, Volume 5 (90/1159-90/4179) and Volume 6 (91/1-91/2702). The full references, names and addresses of authors can be readily found from the Atomic Spectrometry Update References in the relevant issues of JAAS. However, as an additional service to readers an abbreviated form of each literature reference quoted (except for those to Conference Abstracts) is given at the end of the review. Comments on the new format of the reviews are welcome.
Fluorescence Spectrophotometry

"Atomic Spectrometry Update - Advances In Atomic Absorption And Fluorescence Spectrometry And Related Techniques"
J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 1992 Volume 7, Issue 5 Pages 215R-277R
Steve J. Hill, John B. Dawson, W. John Price, Ian L. Shuttler and Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: This is the second review with many references describing developments in atomic absorption and atomic fluorescence spectrometry since the restructuring of the earlier third and fourth ASU reviews on atomization and excitation and instrumentation in 1990. Thus it follows on the review published last year (J. Anal. Atomic Spectrom., 1991, 6, 187R) and includes fundamental processes and instrumentation in the areas of atomic absorption and atomic fluorescence spectrometry together with advances in related techniques such as atomic magnetooptical rotation spectrometry and laser-enhanced ionization. The review of atomic emission spectrometry may be found in JAAS, Vol. 7, Issue 4. The full references, names and addresses of authors can be readily found from the Atomic Spectrometry Updates references. in the relevant issue of JAAS. However, as an additional service to readers an abbreviated form of each literature reference quoted (except for those of conference abstrs.) is given at the end of the review. Comments as to possible improvements in future reviews are always welcome.
Spectrophotometry Fluorescence

"Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry In Occupational And Environmental Health Practice - A Decade Of Progress And Establishment. A Review"
J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 1994 Volume 9, Issue 3 Pages 405-414
Dimiter L. Tsalev

Abstract: A review is presented of developments in the determination of 52 elements by the cited technique. Instrumentation, chemical modifiers, reaction media, sample decomposition, atomizer design, fast temperature programmes, in-situ ashing, flow injection pre-concentration and element speciation are critically discussed with respect to occupational and environmental health applications. (170 references).
Trace elements Industrial Environmental Spectrophotometry

"Liquid Sample Introduction Devices In Flow Injection Atomic Spectroscopy"
J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 1995 Volume 10, Issue 7 Pages 473-477
J. L. Burguera and M. Burguera

Abstract: A review is presented of the advantages of using FIA manifolds as sample introduction devices (SID) for atomic spectroscopy. The development and current status of SID in atomic spectroscopy is discussed. The three types of SID, volume-based, time-based and volume and time-based devices are outlined in detail with emphasis on their reliability, sample and reagent consumption, degree of flexibility, robustness and automation capabilities. (76 references).
Spectrophotometry

"Developments And Trends In Flow Injection Atomic Absorption Spectrometry"
J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 1996 Volume 11, Issue 1 Pages 1-24
Zhaolun Fang, Shukun Xu and Guanhong Tao

Abstract: An overview is presented of the developments and future trends in the uses of flow injection as a sample introduction technique for AAS appearing in the literature during the period 1972 to early 1995. (645 references).
Spectrophotometry

"Flow Injection For Automation In Atomic Spectrometry. Invited Lecture"
J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 1997 Volume 12, Issue 6 Pages 643-651
J. L. BURGUERA and M. BURGUERA

Abstract: The use of FI methods to extend the capabilities of atomic spectrometric detectors is discussed with emphasis on developments in automation. Topics such as direct sample introduction and on-line dilution, calibration, dissolution, liquid-liquid extraction, precipitation reactions, ion-exchange pre-concentration, generation of volatile species and microwave sample pre-treatment are used to illustrate the versatility of coupling FI with either FAAS, ETAAS, ICP-AES, ICP-MS and/or AFS. Finally a brief overview of the advances in this research field is presented. (230 references).
Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Fluorescence Mass spectrometry Spectrophotometry

"Atomic Spectrometry Update - Advances In Atomic Absorption And Fluorescence Spectrometry And Related Techniques"
J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 1997 Volume 12, Issue 8 Pages 327R-379R
STEVE J. HILL, JOHN B. DAWSON, W. JOHN PRICE, IAN L. SHUTTLER, CLARE M. M. SMITH, JULIAN F. TYSON

Abstract: This review follows on from last year's (J. Anal. Atomic Spectrom,, 1996, 11, 281R) and describes the developments in atomic absorbance and fluorescence spectrometry since that time, Included in this review are fundamental processes and instrumentation in the areas of atomic absorption and atomic fluorescence spectrometry, together with advances in related techniques such as atomic magneto-optical rotation spectrometry and laser-enhanced ionization, The review of Atomic Emission Spectrometry may be found in J. Anal. Atomic Spectrom., 1997, 12, 263R. Once again this year a number of changes have been implemented to aid presentation, Following the inclusion of tables to present information in Section 1.2, Electrothermal Atomization last year, Ne have continued the practice in this year's review to facilitate easier and quicker access to material, The sub-headings have also been modified to reflect the material presented in the review, although in general the format is the same as in previous gears, This year for the first time references are present in the standard format, Comments as to these changes and possible improvements for future reviews are welcomed by the review coordinator. 682 References
Fluorescence Spectrophotometry Sample preparation Spectrophotometry

"Recent Advances In Microwave Plasma Torch Atomic-emission Spectrometry"
J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 1998 Volume 13, Issue 5 Pages 377-384
Qinhan Jin, Wenjun Yang, Feng Liang, Hanqi Zhang, Aimin Yu, Yanbo Cao, Jianguang Zhou and Bing Xu

Abstract: The development of an alternative excitation source, the microwave plasma torch (MPT) is historically reviewed. The unique features and shortcomings of the MPT as an excitation source for AES are outlined. To overcome the relatively severe matrix effects, desolvation, flow injection, online preseparation and pre-concentration as well as online standard additions techniques have been adopted. An oxygen-sheathed Ar-MPT has been developed to alleviate the interferences caused by the strong nitrogen-related emission bands and this has also been shown to be valuable in reducing noise levels as well as improving the excitation capability, Some possible future developments are envisioned. (62 References)
Spectrophotometry

"Atomic Spectrometry Update: Industrial Analysis: Metals, Chemicals, And Advanced Materials"
J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 1998 Volume 13, Issue 12 Pages 233R-266R
Ben Fairman, Michael W. Hinds, Simon M. Nelms and Denise M. Penny

Abstract: This Atomic Spectrometry Update is the latest in an annual series appearing under the title 'Industrial Analysis'. The overall structure of the review is broadly the same as last year's. However, small variations have appeared due to the nature of the information provided to reviewers and to changes in the reviewing team. The popularity of ETV-ICP-MS and ETV-ICP-AES techniques for the analysis of industrial materials seems unabated. Throughout this year's review, across all the types of materials, the use of these methods, especially with the refinement of slurry sampling, have shown an increase in usage. This is somewhat surprising as there are not many fully automated commercial instruments available. Obviously, this type of sample introduction method must give real benefits. The increases in instrument sensitivity, especially with the introduction of magnetic sector ICP-MS and ultrasonic nebulization, has found some niche markets. This is true in the analysis of radionuclides, where analyte levels are extremely low and where low sample loadings are important. The semiconductor industry is also a large sector where the ultimate in sensitivity is required. However, issues such as blank levels, purity of acids and calibration problems at sub-ppt ranges still require some attention. In the area of solid sampling, innovations continue to be reported. For metals, glow discharge, spark emission, spark ablation and laser ablation continue to be the method of choice. However, in other areas laser ablation seems to be the most popular method for solid sampling. Questions as to quantification using laser ablation sample introduction methods are being answered. Dual systems using aqueous standards have been reported and work is progressing in all areas on the introduction of solid calibrants and CRMs, although progress is slow. Microwave digestion methods continue to invade sample preparation research. The latest systems have higher power ranges, individual temperature and pressure control features and are, in general, becoming much more flexible. They are being used to reduce tedious sample preparation methods which can take several days, for complex matrices, to a few hours. They are also being used as alternatives for conventional ashing and air refluxing methods. This time advantage is further being enhanced with the development of flow injection microwave digestion strategies lasting only a few minutes.

"Automated Chemical Analysis: Update On Continuous-flow Approach"
Anal. Chem. 1976 Volume 48, Issue 12 Pages 942A-956A
Lloyd Snyder , Jacob Levine , Robert Stoy , Aldo Conetta

Abstract: A review with 18 references describing the use of continuous-flow analysis systems in clinical biochemical and comparing these systems with discrete and centrifugal automated systems.

"Pumping Pressure And Reagent Consumption In Continuous-flow Analysis With Unsegmented Reaction Streams"
Anal. Chem. 1977 Volume 49, Issue 1 Pages 17-19
Marvin Margoshes

Abstract: Three research groups have independently developed equipment for rapid chemical analysis by continuous flow without segmentation by air bubbles. All three systems rely on rapid flow of a reagent stream in narrow tubing to limit the spreading of a sample that is injected as a bolus of liquid. Elementary considerations show that an unsegmented continuous flow analysis system will either consume considerably more reagent than a segmented system or else will require very high pumping pressures.

"Pumping Pressure And Reagent Consumption In Flow Injection Analysis. Comments"
Anal. Chem. 1977 Volume 49, Issue 12 Pages 1858-1861
Jaromir Ruzicka, Elo Harald Hansen, Hans Mosbaek, and Francisco Jose Krug

Abstract: A polemic in reply to M. Margoshes, ibid. 1977, 49(1), 17-19. Chemical analysis by continuous-flow without air segmentation allows higher sampling rates and uses less reagent and sample solution/determination than the traditional air segmented systems. This is achieved by controlling the degree of dispersion of the sample zone and adjusting it to the chemical involved rather than unselectively limiting it by air bubbles. The parameters governing the dispersion of the sample zone and the means of controlling it are theoretically discussed. For experimental verification small sample volumes (5-30 µL) of chloride and phosphate were analyzed at a rate of ~120/h and the economy of the methods were compared with the corresponding AutoAnalyzer procedures.
Chloride Phosphate Spectrophotometry

"Depulsing System For Positive Displacement Pumps"
Anal. Chem. 1977 Volume 49, Issue 13 Pages 2125-2126
Kent K. Stewart

Abstract: The construction and operation of a simple depulsing system forpositive displacement pumps are described. The system is inexpensive and can be easily assembled from commercial available parts. It is readily adaptable to different operating pressures and flow rates and is easy to clean. It has been used with chromatography and continuous flow anal. systems with flow rates of 20-500 mL/h and pressures of 5-500 psi.

"Construction Of PH Gradients In Flow Injection Analysis And Their Potential Use For Multielement Analysis In A Single Sample Bolus"
Anal. Chem. 1978 Volume 50, Issue 4 Pages 654-656
D. Betteridge and Bernard Fields

Abstract: The resoln. of absorbing species of the chelates of 4-(2-pyridylazo)resorcinol (PAR) with Pb(II) and V(V) was used to demonstrate the feasibility of multielement determination across a single sample bolus in flow injection analysis The separation of the resulting peaks is made possible by establishing a pH gradient across the sample carrier interfaces by arranging the pH values of the samples and carrier stream to be different. The nature of the flow and mixing processes which make this possible are discussed.
Lead(2+) Vanadium(V) Spectrophotometry

"Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chem. 1978 Volume 50, Issue 9 Pages 832A-846A
D. Betteridge

Abstract: Flow injection analysis, a continuous-flow analysis technique in which the sample is injected directly into the carrier stream without air segmentation, is reviewed with 48 refs.

"Electrochemical Sensors For Process Stream Monitoring"
Anal. Chem. 1978 Volume 50, Issue 7 Pages 698A-706A
Peter L. Bailey

Abstract: Equipment and operating procedures are discussed for the monitoring of aqueous process streams by direct potentiometry, electrical conductivity, and voltammetry.
Conductometry Electrode Potentiometry Voltammetry Sensor

"Flow Injection Analysis. Principles, Techniques, Applications And Designs"
Anal. Chem. 1981 Volume 53, Issue 1 Pages 20A-32A
Craig B. Ranger

Abstract: Review: Flow injection analysis (FIA) is that type of continuous flow analysis that utilizes an analytical stream, unsegmented by air bubbles, into which highly reproducible volumes of sample are injected. Application of this principle to automatic analysis yields a fast, precise, accurate and extremely versatile system that is simple to operate.
Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Polarography Voltammetry

"Continuous-flow Analysis Revisited"
Anal. Chem. 1981 Volume 53, Issue 12 Pages 1312A-1316A
Horacio A. Mottola

Abstract: Review: Continuous-flow procedures constitute one analytical answer to the increasing load being imposed on the practicing chemical analyst. The answer applies mainly to the problems posed when a large number of samples of similar nature have to be processed for the determination of a single species; such problems are common to clinical chemistry, environmental studies and control, and industrial processes and quality control. Continuous-flow procedures meet the need, in those cases, for shorter times and decreased operating costs per determination.

"Characterization Of Solvent Extraction/flow Injection Analysis With Constant Pressure Pumping And Determination Of Procyclidine Hydrochloride In Tablets"
Anal. Chem. 1982 Volume 54, Issue 11 Pages 1693-1697
Lynette Fossey and Frederick F. Cantwell

Abstract: A flow injection extraction apparatus utilizing a membrane phase separator and constant pressure pumping is described and characterized In terms of extraction coil length, sample injection volume, and flow rates. Equations are derived and verified that show that under conditions where the sample component is quantitatively extracted into the organic phase, the peak area depends only on the number of moles of sample injected and the total flow rate of organic solvent. A sampling frequency of 4 samples/min is readily achieved. Procyclldlne hydrochloride is assayed in tablets with 1% precision and accuracy.
Procyclidine Pharmaceutical HPLC Sample preparation

"Optimization Of A Flow Injection Analysis System For Multiple Solvent Extraction"
Anal. Chem. 1982 Volume 54, Issue 12 Pages 2056-2061
Thomas M. Rossi, Dennis C. Shelly, and Isiah M. Warner

Abstract: The performance of a multistage flow injection analysis solvent extraction system has been optimized. The effect of solvent segmentation devices, extraction coils, and phase separators on performance characteristics is discussed. Theoretical consideration is given to the effects and determination of dispersion and the extraction dynamics within both glass and Teflon extraction coils. The optimized system has a sample recovery similar to an identical manual procedure and a 1.5% relative standard deviation between injections. Sample throughput time is under 5 min. These characteristics represent significant Improvements over the performance of the same system before optimization.
Hydrocarbons, aromatic Hydrocarbons, aromatic, polycyclic Sample preparation

"Nonsegmented Rapid Flow Analysis With Ultraviolet/visible Spectrophotometric Determination For Short Sampling Times"
Anal. Chem. 1983 Volume 55, Issue 3 Pages 497-501
Peter W. Alexander and Amlius Thalib

Abstract: The development of a non-segmented, rapid-flow system with short sampling times is shown to allow high-speed sampling with a UV-visible spectrophotometric detector. For methyl orange as a model color indicator, a sampling rate of 360 samples h-1 is obtained experimentally with a 3 s sampling time followed by a 7 s flush in a narrow bore (0.5 mm), short pathlength (800 mm) flow. The sampling is performed manually with a precision of 0.85% relative standard deviation (RSD) and negligible carry-over, with a dwell time of 8 s. Determination of chloride by a fast chemical reaction Is used as an example to compare rapid-flow analysis with flow-injection and bubble-gating techniques.
Chloride Spectrophotometry

"Flow Injection Analysis. New Tool For Old Assays. New Approach To Analytical Measurements"
Anal. Chem. 1983 Volume 55, Issue 9 Pages 931A-940A
Kent K. Stewart

Abstract: Flow injection analysis is the potential method of choice for many automated and semi-automated analyzes.A general overview is presented (40 references), indicating that flow injection analysis is complementary to continuous-flow analysis; theoretical considerations are included.Special uses for flow injection analysis include stopped-flow systems having throughputs of 100 samples h-1

"Flow Injection Analysis. From Test Tube To Integrated Microconduits"
Anal. Chem. 1983 Volume 55, Issue 11 Pages 1040A-1042A
Jaromir Ruzicka

Abstract: A review is presented, with 29 references, on the development of flow injection analysis. After a description of the simplest system, the application is discussed of integrated electronic devices that permit miniaturization and automation of the injection and detection systems. Sample-zone dispersion and various gradient techniques are discussed.

"Quenched Room Temperature Phosphorescence Detection For Flow Injection And Liquid Chromatography"
Anal. Chem. 1983 Volume 55, Issue 12 Pages 1886-1893
J. J. Donkerbroek, A. C. Veltkamp, C. Gooijer, N. H. Velthorst, and R. W. Frei

Abstract: The cited detection technique is based on quenching of the phosphorescence of biacetyl by suitable analytes. The sensitivity of such quenching is dependent on the bimolecular rate constant of the quenching reaction. Values for this constant and for the estimated limit of detection in aqueous 83.7% acetonitrile, water or hexane are listed for various chloroanilines, amines, aromatic N compounds, S-containing compounds, chlorophenols, aromatic and aliphatic hydroxy-compounds, and inorganic ions. The detection limits are often very low, e.g., 1 to 10 nM. The rectilinearity of the relationship between signal and concentration. can be extended by use of electronic signal inversion techniques. Application of this detection method to flow injection analysis and HPLC is demonstrated.
Anilines, chloro Amines Phenols, chloro Anions, inorganic Clinical analysis HPLC Phosphorescence

"Effect Of Variation In Flow Rate On Amperometric Detection In Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Chem. 1984 Volume 56, Issue 3 Pages 436-439
David MacKoul, Dennis C. Johnson, and Karl G. Schick

Abstract: Equations relating to constant sample volume and constant sampling time are derived for the case of sinusoidal variation in flow rate resulting from peristaltic pumping; conditions for maximizing analytical precision are examined.
Iodide Amperometry

"Sample Introduction Techniques For Atomic Spectroscopy"
Anal. Chem. 1984 Volume 56, Issue 7 Pages 875A-888A
Richard F. Browner, Andrew W. Boorn

Abstract: A review is presented, with 37 references, of nebulizers, vapor introduction, flow injection and liquid chromatographic introduction, and other sample-introduction techniques for atomic spectroscopy.
Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry

"Ion-selective Electrodes"
Anal. Chem. 1984 Volume 56, Issue 5 Pages 20R-48R
Mark A. Arnold and Mark E. Meyerhoff

Abstract: A review is presented, with 711 references of the period autumn 1981 to autumn 1983. Sections are included on glass and solid-state membrane electrodes, liquid and polymer membrane electrodes, coated wire electrodes and gas sensors and selective bioelectrode systems.
Electrode

"Kinetic Determinations And Some Kinetic Aspects Of Analytical Chemistry"
Anal. Chem. 1984 Volume 56, Issue 5 Pages 96R-112R
Horacio A. Mottola and Harry B. Mark Jr.

Abstract: A review is presented, with 299 references, of the period November 1981 to November 1983. Sections are included on, inter alia, the determination of catalysts, kinetic methods based on inhibition or activation of catalysts, titrimetry with catalytic end-point indication, use of electrodes and luminescence, reaction rate methods, kinetics in separation and computerized instrumentation.

"Strategies For Electrochemical Immunoassay"
Anal. Chem. 1985 Volume 57, Issue 12 Pages 1321A-1331A
William R. Heineman, H. Brian Halsall

Abstract: Assays based on voltammetric techniques are reviewed and discussed, and include electrochemical detection in liquid chromatography and flow injection analysis, stripping voltammetry and differential pulse voltammetry. The two main label types are described, i.e., an enzyme that catalyses production of an electroactive product and a label that is electroactive or renders a molecule electroactive. These methods are free from problems that affect spectrometric techniques, e.g., sample turbidity, quenching and spectral interference. Detection levels in the low pg mL-1 range on 20 µL samples can be achieved. (34 references).
Immunoassay Voltammetry Voltammetry

"Silane Isomer Effect On The Capacity Of Silica-immobilized 8-quinolinol"
Anal. Chem. 1985 Volume 57, Issue 1 Pages 375-376
Monte A. Marshall and Horacio A. Mottola

Abstract: The capacity of silica-immobilized 8-quinolinol, prepared using various isomeric compositions of (aminophenyl)trimethoxysilane as the silylating reagent, is lowered by the presence of large amounts of the ortho isomer. The proximity of the reactive amine functional group to the silica surface causes steric hindrance which results in a failure of diazo coupling to occur when performing the immobilization with the ortho isomer. The capacity, however, is increased only slightly when performing the synthesis with the meta and para isomers. The bulkiness of 8-quinolinol itself is proposed as the reason for the lack of increased capacity in these cases. Various aspects of the separation and identification of the isomers is also presented.

"Control Of Dispersion And Variation Of Reaction Coil Length In Flow Injection Analyzers By Flow Reversals"
Anal. Chem. 1987 Volume 59, Issue 8 Pages 1236-1238
D. Betteridge, P. B. Oates, and Adrian P. Wade

Abstract: Procedures (diagrams given) were adopted to study the control of dispersion and of variations in reaction coil length, by flow reversal: single reversal without reactions, single reversal with reaction and multiple reversals without reaction. These allow the plug to be moved effectively any distance. Results from the three experiments showed that flow reversal optimized automated flow injection analysis.

"Process Analytical Chemistry"
Anal. Chem. 1987 Volume 59, Issue 4 Pages 624A-637A
James B. Callis, Deborah L. Illman, Bruce R. Kowalski

Abstract: A review with 33 references. Five areas of process anal. chemical (off-line, at-line, online, in-line, and noninvasive), role of chemometrics, and implementing process anal. chemical are discussed.

"Ultraviolet And Light Absorption Spectrometry"
Anal. Chem. 1988 Volume 60, Issue 12 Pages 131R-146R
L. G. Hargis and J. A. Howell

Abstract: A review is presented on developments in reagents and methods, including simultaneous and dual-wavelength analysis, derivative spectrophotometry, reaction-rate analysis and flow injection analysis. (542 references).
Spectrophotometry

"Detection Limits And Selectivity In Electrochemical Detectors"
Anal. Chem. 1988 Volume 60, Issue 15 Pages 903A-913A
Stephen G. Weber, John T. Long

Abstract: Developments in current-carrying electrochemical detectors for use in flow, e.g., liquid chromatographic, systems are described and reviewed with special reference to signal and noise generation, signal-to-noise ratio, improvement of qualitative information content and control of selectivity. Future developments in the versatility and potency of electrochemical detection are discussed. (53 references).
Electrochemical analysis

"Kinetic Determinations And Some Kinetic Aspects Of Analytical Chemistry"
Anal. Chem. 1990 Volume 62, Issue 12 Pages 441R-461R
Horacio A. Mottola, Dolores Perez-Bendito, and Harry B. Mark

Abstract: A review is presented, with 370 references, on kinetic methods based on, e.g., flow injection, thermometric titration, photometric monitoring, electrode reactions and luminescence.
Thermometry Spectrophotometry Electrochemical analysis Luminescence

"Ion-selective Electrodes"
Anal. Chem. 1990 Volume 62, Issue 12 Pages 21R-33R
Robert L. Solsky

Abstract: A review is presented, with 477 references, on solid-state, glass, polymer-matrix, gas-selective and enzyme electrodes and biosensors. Applications in chromatography and clinical, biomedical and flow injection analysis are discussed.
Clinical analysis Electrode Sensor

"Liquid Chromatography: Theory And Methodology"
Anal. Chem. 1990 Volume 62, Issue 12 Pages 324R-356R
John G. Dorsey, Joe P. Foley, William T. Cooper, Robert A. Barford, and Howard G. Barth

Abstract: A review is presented, with 889 references, on developments in LC, e.g., size-exclusion, affinity and ion chromatography. Chemical equilibria, pre- and post-column derivatization and applications to separation of isomers and trace analysis are discussed.
LC

"Pharmaceuticals And Related Drugs"
Anal. Chem. 1991 Volume 63, Issue 12 Pages 130R-148R
R. K. Gilpin and L. A. Pachla

Abstract: A review is presented covering the period from November 1988 to October 1990 including alkaloids, antibiotics, multi-element analysis, S-, N- and O-containing compounds and vitamins and techniques used. (693 references).
Ascorbic acid Pharmaceutical HPLC Electrode Polarography

"Water Analysis"
Anal. Chem. 1991 Volume 63, Issue 12 Pages 301R-342R
Patrick MacCarthy, Ronald W. Klusman, Steven W. Cowling, and James A. Rice

Abstract: A review is presented including methods used and organic and inorganic analysis of water (>1000 references).
Organics, volatile Water Chemiluminescence HPLC GC Immunoassay Spectrophotometry Sample preparation

"Flow Injection Cytoanalysis"
Anal. Chem. 1992 Volume 64, Issue 9 Pages 537A-545A
Jaromir Ruzicka, Walter Lindberg

Abstract: The use of fluorescent probes in cytochemical analysis is reviewed, with 33 references. Both of the commonly used techniques, viz. fluorescence microscopy (for adherent cells) and flow cytometry (for suspended cells) have been modified by incorporation of flow-injection, controlled mixing and reproducible timing, with instrumentation under computer control. These modifications ensure that reaction conditions are strictly reproducible and minimize problems caused by the heterogeneity of cell populations. The apparatus, principles and possible applications of the modified processes are discussed and compared with those for the conventional procedures.
Flow cytometry

"Atomic Absorption, Atomic Emission, And Flame Emission Spectrometry"
Anal. Chem. 1992 Volume 64, Issue 12 Pages 50R-66R
Kenneth W. Jackson and Huancheng Qiao

Abstract: A review is presented, with 634 references, with discussion of electrothermal atomization, flame AES and AAS and laser-excited atomic fluorescence spectrometry. Other areas covered include vapor-phase sample introduction and the application of flow injection analysis to the cited techniques.
Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Fluorescence

"Process Analytical Chemistry"
Anal. Chem. 1993 Volume 65, Issue 12 Pages 199R-216R
Kenneth R. Beebe, Wayne W. Blaser, Robert A. Bredeweg, Jean Paul Chauvel, Richard S. Harner, Mark LaPack, Anne Leugers, Daniel P. Martin, Larry G. Wright, and E. Deniz Yalvac

Abstract: This first comprehensive review of the applications used in the area of process analytical chemistry primarily covers articles published between 1987 and 1992. Although many diverse techniques are used to measure analytical parameters in manufacturing, this review is limited to those dealing with spectroscopy, separations, and mathematical analysis of data. A number of articles dealing with more general concepts of process analytical chemistry (PAC) are also mentioned. The separation of materials is frequently carried out using process gas chromatography, but process liquid chromatography has also been developed. Spectroscopic techniques in the PAC field include optical spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy, and fiber optics. Process optimization and monitoring have been carried out using chemometrics, and the versatility, adaptability, and simplicity of flow injection analysis has enabled the technique to be used in a range of different environments. A review is presented, with 507 references, of the literature published between 1987 and 1992 on analytical techniques used in process control. Techniques included are chromatography, optical spectroscopy, fiber optics, MS, chemometics, artificial neural networks and FIA.
Chromatography Mass spectrometry

"Pharmaceuticals And Related Drugs"
Anal. Chem. 1993 Volume 65, Issue 12 Pages 117R-132R
R. K. Gilpin and L. A. Pachla

Abstract: A review is presented on analytical methodologies for drugs and pharmaceuticals including alkaloids, antibiotics, inorganics, N-, O- and S-containing compounds, steroids and vitamins. (700 references).
Drugs Pharmaceutical

"Water Analysis"
Anal. Chem. 1993 Volume 65, Issue 12 Pages 244R-292R
Patrick MacCarthy, Ronald W. Klusman, Steven W. Cowling, and James A. Rice

Abstract: The review, with many refs., covers water anal. for alkali and alkaline earth metals, NH4+, transition metals, anions, gases, organic compounds, volatile substances, pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, surfactants, detergents, organometallic compounds, including sampling, pre-concentration, extraction, biochemical methods, photometry, spectrophotometry, mass spectrometry, HPLC, gas and liquid chromatography, electrometric methods, and electrophoresis.
Organic compounds Water Spectrophotometry LC Mass spectrometry Voltammetry Sample preparation

"Chemiluminescence And Bioluminescence"
Anal. Chem. 1993 Volume 65, Issue 12 Pages 460R-462R
Larry J. Kricka

Abstract: The time period covered by this review is the Chemical Abstracts citation dates January 1, 1991 to October 1992. Chemiluminescence (CL) is the light emission produced in a chemical reaction from the decay of chemiexcited species to the electronic ground state. Similar reactions occur in nature ('living light" or bioluminescence, BL) and involve a luciferin substrate in conjunction with either a luciferase enzyme or a photoprotein.
Chemiluminescence Bioluminescence

"Flame, Flameless, And Plasma Spectroscopy"
Anal. Chem. 1993 Volume 65, Issue 12 Pages 463R-469R
Nancy W. Alcock

Abstract: This review summarizes recent developments in FAAS, GFAAS, ICPAES, and ICPMS which have current or potential application to the field of clinical chemistry.
Trace elements Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry

"Liquid Chromatography: Theory And Methodology"
Anal. Chem. 1994 Volume 66, Issue 12 Pages 500R-546R
John G. Dorsey, William T. Cooper, John F. Wheeler, Howard G. Barth, and Joe P. Foley

Abstract: A fundamental review is presented of developments in the chemistry of the separation process in LC, reported between December 1991 and December 1993. Topics discussed include: theory and optimization; data analysis; normal-phase and reversed-phase LC; biopolymer separations; affinity chromatography; ion chromatography; secondary equilibria; geometric and optical isomers; multi-dimensional chromatography and column switching; preparative LC; pre- and post-column derivatization; microcolumn and open tubular LC; trace analysis; and physiochemical measurements. (1107 references).
LC

"Atomic Absorption, Atomic Emission, And Flame Emission Spectrometry"
Anal. Chem. 1994 Volume 66, Issue 12 Pages 252R-279R
Kenneth W. Jackson and Tariq M. Mahmood

Abstract: This fundamental review provides continuous coverage of the literature over a two-year period since the last review in the series ( I ) . All aspects of atomic absorption are addressed, and also emission and fluorescence techniques that may not be covered in the complementary review on plasma emission spectrometry appearing in this issue. Although we do not guarantee to include reference to every paper published, we have attempted to provide a critical review of all significant publications on fundamental aspects of the techniques
Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry

"Ultraviolet And Light Absorption Spectrometry"
Anal. Chem. 1994 Volume 66, Issue 12 Pages 445R-461R
J. A. Howell and L. G. Hargis

Abstract: Anal. applications of UV and visible absorption spectrometry are reviewed with 614 refs.
Spectrophotometry

"Pharmaceuticals And Related Drugs"
Anal. Chem. 1995 Volume 67, Issue 12 Pages 295R-313R
R. K. Gilpin and L. A. Pachla

Abstract: Analytical methodologies for pharmaceuticals and related compounds that appeared in Analytical Abstracts or Chemical Abstracts between November 1992 and November 1994 are reviewed. The following compounds are examined: alkaloids, antibiotics, inorganics, nitrogen- and oxygen-containing compounds, proteins and peptides, steroids, sulfur, and vitamins. Some additional techniques and miscellaneous topics are also reviewed. Some recent books, reviews, and international meetings are cited. Also cited is literature on chiral drugs; automation of flow injection analysis procedures; and various aspects of chromatography that are relevant to natural, synthetic, and recombinant products, pharmaceutical development, and hardware considerations.
Drugs Pharmaceutical

"Atomic Absorption, Atomic Emission, And Flame Emission Spectrometry"
Anal. Chem. 1996 Volume 68, Issue 12 Pages 231R-256R
Kenneth W. Jackson and Guoru Chen

Abstract: A review is presented on AAS, AES and flame photometry with an emphasis on techniques and not on applications. The largest published area, ETAAS is discussed in detail. The instrumentation, operation, atomization and interferences concerned with flame AAS and AES are discussed. Laser techniques are examined as well as online flow injection techniques. Sample preparation is also looked atomic (674 references).
Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry

"Flow Injection Analysis In The Teaching Laboratory"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1982 Volume 312, Issue 5 Pages 441-443
D. Betteridge

Abstract: Experiences in the teaching laboratory with a very simple form of flow injection analysis, in which a constant head is used to propel the carrier stream and the detector is made by a combination of light emitting diode and phototransistor, are described and discussed.
Copper Cobalt Iron Lead Manganese Nickel

"Flow Analysis For The Determination Of The Main Components Of Waters, Rain Water And Drinking Water"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1983 Volume 314, Issue 7 Pages 627-633
H. F. R. Reijnders, P. H. A. M. Melis und B. Griepink

Abstract: A survey of the literature concerning flow-through determination of the main components in various types of water is given. These components are: alkalinity, chloride, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate, sulphate, ammonium, potassium, lithium, sodium, barium, calcium, magnesium and strontium. Details with regard to e.g. type of water, range of the method, interferences etc. are given in a separate compilation which is available from the editor upon request.
Alkalinity Ammonium Barium Calcium Chloride Lithium Magnesium Nitrate Nitrite Phosphate Potassium Sodium Strontium Sulfate Water Rain

"Application Of Flow Injection Techniques For The Analysis Of Inorganic Anions"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1985 Volume 320, Issue 5 Pages 451-456
J. M&ouml;ller and B. Winter

Abstract: A review is presented, with 113 references. Some improvements in the determination of sulfur anions by flow injection analysis are also described. A survey of applications of flow injection analysis for the analysis of inorganic anions is given in form of a table. The turbidimetric determination of sulphate is improved by the intermittent addition of a wash solution via a separate pump. A comparison of results for the determination of sulphate in surface waters using the barium-methylthymol blue method and ion-chromatography shows good agreement. For the determination of sulphite a gas-diffusion technique is used. The method allows 90 injections/h and shows good reproducibility, 1% RSD for consecutive injections of standards at the 10 mg/l SO2-level. As the sample line is physically separated from the detection line, the method is insensitive to matrix effects from colored or turbid samples. Results for the determination of free and total sulphite in wine, beer and fruit juices are given.
Anions Sulfur compounds Sulfate Sulfite Food Water Spectrophotometry

"Electrochemical Anion Analysis And Its Significance For Speciation Analysis"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1985 Volume 320, Issue 5 Pages 429-434
Karl Cammann

Abstract: A survey over the most important electrochemical anion determination methods is given. With respect to speciation analysis the possibility of disturbing an ion equilibrium is pointed out, if separation methods are used. Selective electrochemical methods are described, which - if working without separation step and material consumption - do not change the sample matrix, thus leading to more accurate anion analysis including the information about the state of oxidation and binding.
Potentiometry

"Flow Injection Analysis - A Survey Of Its Potential For Spectroscopy"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1986 Volume 324, Issue 7 Pages 745-749
Jarom&iacute;r Ruzicka

Abstract: A review is presented of the combination of flow injection analysis with AAS or ICP spectrometry for pre-concentration of samples, in speciation studies, for conversion of non-detectable species into detectable species and in multi-detector systems. (28 references).
Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry

"Preconcentration Techniques For Inorganic Trace Analysis"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1986 Volume 324, Issue 7 Pages 672-677
Atsushi Mizuike

Abstract: A review is presented, with emphasis on control of contamination and losses of trace elements in pre-concentration from large volumes of liquids (including natural water) and micro-scale pre-concentration of trace elements from high-purity solid micro-samples. Two types of continuous-flow co-precipitation - flotation apparatus and two types of decomposition - electrolysis micro-vessel are described, with detailed diagrams and examples of applications. (19 references).
Trace elements Environmental

"Some Applications Of Enthalpimetric Detection In Flow Injection Analysis"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1987 Volume 329, Issue 4 Pages 440-443
W. E. van der Linden Contact Information, M. Bos, H. H. Heskamp and H. Wilms

Abstract: A flow-through arrangement of thermistors for detecting heat changes due to chemical reactions was included in a flow injection system. Changes of 0.001°C could be measured reproducibly. Working ranges of analyte concentration. depended on reaction enthalpy and varied from 1 mM to 10 M for acids and bases and 10 to 1000 ppm for, e.g., alkylhydroperoxides. Typical signals are presented for NaOH (reaction with HCl), Ca(II) (EDTA determination), H2O2, t-butyl hydroperoxide and cumyl hydroperoxide (SO2 reduction in presence of amine).
Sodium hydroxide Calcium(2+) Hydrogen peroxide t-Butylhydroperoxide Cumylhydroperoxide Enthalpimetry Thermistor

"Exploitation Of Gradient Techniques In Flow Injection Analysis"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1988 Volume 329, Issue 6 Pages 656-659
Elo Harald Hansen

Abstract: A brief review is presented, with 16 references. Topics considered are gradient dilution and calibration, stopped-flow reaction rate measurements, titration, gradient scanning and simultaneous injection of two zones.

"Online Determination Of Enzymes In Bioprocessing With The Emphasis In Flow Injection Analysis And Continuous Sampling"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1988 Volume 329, Issue 6 Pages 718-725
K. H. Kroner

Abstract: A review is presented, with 19 references, of the current status of online assay of enzymes with use of flow injection techniques. Continuous sampling is possible with a module based on membrane filtration, the process fluid being pumped through the module and back to the reactor. Examples are given of determinations of enzymes, e.g., β-galactosidase, in fermentation and in downstream processing.
Enzymes Fermentation broth Spectrophotometry

"Ion-sensitive Electrodes In Flow Injection Analysis-improved Performance And Unique Applications"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1988 Volume 329, Issue 6 Pages 698-700
Wolfgang Frenzel

Abstract: A review is presented, with 28 references, of the incorporation of ion-sensitive electrodes in flow systems. Aspects discussed include kinetic discrimination, lowering of detection limits, indirect non-titrimetric determination, reverse flow injection analysis calibration, series differential detection and continuous monitoring.
Electrode Potentiometry

"Flow Injection Calibration Techniques"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1988 Volume 329, Issue 6 Pages 663-667
Julian Tyson

Abstract: A review is presented, with 28 references. Examples are described of the various manifolds and methods designed for this purpose, especially for use in conjunction with atomic spectrometry.
Spectrophotometry

"Flow Injection Analysis In Soil Research And Plant Analysis"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1988 Volume 329, Issue 6 Pages 701-706
K. Schaller, R. Lenhardt, V. Weber und C. Euler

Abstract: Flow diagrams and experimental conditions are given for the determination of N in soils, of NH3 in grape musts and juices, of P in soil extracts, of NO3- in plant extracts and of total amino-acid content, proline and arginine in plants. Each analysis is discussed and compared with other methods.
Nitrogen Phosphorus Nitrate Amino Acids Arginine l-Proline Environmental Plant Juice Musts Sample preparation

"Flow Injection Extraction In Theory And Practice"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1988 Volume 329, Issue 6 Pages 660-662
Bo Karlberg

Abstract: Flow injection schemes involving solvent extraction are reviewed, with examples. Procedures are given for the extractions of caffeine from beverages, anionic surfactants from aqueous samples, codeine from drugs, bitterness compounds from beer, and phenol from water. The organic extractant is 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (for beer) or CHCl3 (others). A typical system is characterized by low comsumption of organic phase (0.5 to 2 mL per sample), low sample volume (20 to 200 µL) and high sample throughput (45 to 120 h-1). (9 references).
Bittering compounds Caffeine Codeine Phenol Surfactants, anionic Beverage Beer Pharmaceutical Water Sample preparation

"Expansion Of The Dynamic Range Of Flow Injection Analysis Systems For Complete Batch Process Monitoring"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1988 Volume 329, Issue 6 Pages 678-684
C. Thommen, M. Garn und M. Gisin

Abstract: Online monitoring of industrial processes requires a wide dynamic range, and methods to achieve this are discussed. Of two methods described in detail, the simpler involves combination of peak height measurement with electronic dilution or peak-width measurement, the latter being used when the concentration. is too high for peak height to be used. An example given is the determination of aromatic amines. For more precise measurements, gradient dilution can be used with time-variable zone sampling, as in the monitoring of glucose in fermentation processes.
Amines, aromatic Industrial

"Flow Injection Analysis - A Survey Of Its Potential As Solution Handling And Data Gathering Technique In Chemical Research And Industry"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1988 Volume 329, Issue 6 Pages 653-655
Jaromir Ruzicka

Abstract: The possible applications of flow injection analysis are reviewed briefly, with examples described diagrammatically. Uses considered are, as a tool for serial assay, continuous monitoring and process control, miniaturization and integration, as a link between chemical and instrumental methods, to enhance detector performance and as an impulse response technique. (12 references).
Industrial

"Flow Injection Analysis With Electrochemical Detection"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1988 Volume 329, Issue 6 Pages 691-697
K. Cammann

Abstract: Two combinations of flow injection analysis with electrochemical detection are discussed. The use of potentiometry with ion-selective electrodes is illustrated by the determination of NO3- alone and simultaneously with Na+, K+, Ca(II), HCO3- and Cl- in drinking water, of Al without a reference electrode, of SO2 in grape juices, and of glucose in biological fluids. The apparatus is described and the experimental conditions are given. A hanging-mercury-drop electrode (at 0 V vs. Ag - AgCl) was used for the amperometric detection of ascorbic acid in a buffer (pH 4.7) stream.
Aluminum Ascorbic acid Glucose Nitrate Sulfur dioxide Biological fluid Juice Water Amperometry Electrode Electrode Potentiometry

"A Simple Lecture Demonstration Of Flow Injection Analysis"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1988 Volume 329, Issue 6 Pages 675-677
Julian Tyson

Abstract: The difficulties of explaining the basic concepts of dispersion in flow injection analysis are discussed with particular reference to comparisons with segmented flow analysis and high performance liquid chromatography. The problems with diagrammatic illustration of the laminar flow processes and subsequent dispersion of an injected sample zone are explained. A simple demonstration based on a flow cell for a slide projector consisting of a peristaltic pump tube sandwiched between two slightly modified slide mounts is described.

"Flow Injection Analysis. A Useful Alternative For Solving Analytical Problems"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1990 Volume 337, Issue 6 Pages 662-666
M. Valc&aacute;rcel and M. D. Luque de Castro

Abstract: This review includes the consideration of flow injection analysis (FIA) as an interface (with, e.g., spectrometry), and a range of problems that can be solved by FIA, e.g., broadening the analyte concentration. range in routine control, removal of matrix interference, and direct analysis of heterogeneous samples. (45 references).

"Literature Survey Of The Online Preconcentration In Flow Injection Atomic-spectrometric Analysis"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1992 Volume 342, Issue 7 Pages 529-537
V. Carbonell, A. Salvador and M. de la Guardia

Abstract: A review is presented in which are discussed the three main online pre-concentration procedures - liquid - liquid extraction, column methods and precipitation before analysis by flame or electrothermal AAS or ICP-AES. Examples of applications of each are tabulated (82 references). A review with 82 references. The literature on the use of 'online' pre-concentration in flow injection atomic spectrometric anal. is reviewed, taking into account its application both in flame and electrothermal atomic absorption methods as well as in plasma emission spectrometry. The basis of the different pre-concentration approaches, such as liq.-liq. extraction, column pre-concentration and 'online' precipitation are discussed. The literature survey reveals the anal. performance of the developed methodologies.
Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Sample preparation

"Continuous Precipitation Techniques In Flow Injection Analysis. Review"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1993 Volume 346, Issue 10-11 Pages 873-881
Vlastimil Kub&aacute;n

Abstract: A review with 75 references is presented on continuous precipitation/filtration techniques, with or without subsequent dissolution, and turbidimetry, which are powerful tools for the separation and/or pre-concentration. of many classes of analytes from aqueous matrices. The applicability of the techniques is illustrated by the determination of inorganic anions, metal ions and organic compounds. FIA manifold configurations for direct and indirect determinations and designs of the associated instrumentation are outlined and the principles of direct and indirect detection techniques involving flame AAS, UV-visible absorption spectrophotometry and ISE are described.
Spectrophotometry Electrode Spectrophotometry Turbidimetry

"Membrane Separation In Flow Injection Systems. 1. Dialysis"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1995 Volume 352, Issue 3-4 Pages 271-302
J. F. van Staden

Abstract: A review is presented of membranes for online separations in flow-through dialysers. The historical perspectives are outlined and the fundamental aspects of dialysis are discussed. The theoretical principles and experimental parameters are described. The use of dialysis in sample preparation for chromatography and reactor systems, for FIA, pre-concentration and multicomponent analyzes is evaluated. (224 references).

"New Developments In Flow Injection Separation And Preconcentration Techniques For Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1996 Volume 355, Issue 5-6 Pages 576-580
Zhaolun Fang and Guanhong Tao

Abstract: A review is presented of flow injection sample pretreatment systems for ET AAS with emphasis on developments since 1990 and work by the authors. Systems for pre-concentration and separation using sorption columns, online coprecipitation, solvent extraction and hydride sequestration are described. The advantages and limitations of combining flow injection techniques with ET AAS are discussed. (34 references).
Spectrophotometry Sample preparation Spectrophotometry

"Coupling Continuous-flow Systems To Instruments Based On Discrete Sample Introduction"
Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 1998 Volume 362, Issue 1 Pages 58-66
M. Valc&aacute;rcel, Mercedes Gallego, Angel R&iacute;os

Abstract: The interfaces between low-pressure continuous sample treatment systems and high-level information instruments such as gas chromatographs, capillary electrophoresis equipment and graphite furnace atomic spectroscopic instruments, which are characterized by conventional discrete sample introduction devices, are presented. The present and future developments are discussed of (directly) linking real samples and those analytical equipments with the main objective of avoiding or minimizing manually implemented preliminary operations of the analytical process
GC Electrophoresis Spectrophotometry

"Role Of Flow Injection Analysis In Speciation Studies"
Microchim. Acta 1992 Volume 109, Issue 1-4 Pages 165-168
M. D. Luque de Castro

Abstract: The advantages and limitations of the use of flow injection analysis (FIA) in speciation studies are examined. FIA is compared to manual procedures, probe sensors and HPLC. The potential of FIA - HPLC for speciation studies is discussed. The most useful types of FIA - HPLC assemblies are pre- and post-column coupling. An overview of the features of flow injection analysis (FIA) which make it a very useful technique for speciation studies is presented. Special emphasis is paid on pre- and post-column coupling as these arrangements allow major speciation problems to be solved. methods) are discussed. Current trends in this context are also covered.

"Spectral And Non-spectral Interferences In Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry"
Microchim. Acta 1995 Volume 119, Issue 3-4 Pages 277-286
Richard F. J. Dams, Jan Goossens and Luc Moens

Abstract: An overview is presented on the identification and elimination of interferences in ICP-MS. Elimination of spectral interferences by anion exchange, matrix modification and mathematical correction are discussed. Calibration methods, adapted sample preparations and flow injection techniques for the elimination of nonspectral interferences are then considered. Applications of the correction methods to the analysis of water, soil, sewage, urine, serum and wine are described. (50 references).
Environmental Wine Blood Serum Urine Waste Water Mass spectrometry Sample preparation

"Biocatalysis And Biorecognition In Nonaqueous Media. Some Perspectives In Analytical Biochemistry"
Microchim. Acta 1995 Volume 120, Issue 1-4 Pages 231-242
Lorenzo Braco

Abstract: A review is presented. The basic principles and advantages of non-aqueous enzymology are outlined and its analytical applications are discussed with reference to batch analysis in organic media, flow injection enzyme reactors operating in organic media, organic-phase enzyme electrodes and enzyme-based gas-phase biosensors. Analytical applications of antibodies and abzymes in non-aqueous media are discussed and the potential of molecular imprinting techniques to generate specific recognition systems is considered. (56 references). Biocatalysis and, to a lesser extent, biorecognition in non-aqueous media (including organic solvents as well as supercritical fluids and gases) constitute at present an exciting research area which has already demonstrated its biotechnological potential in numerous, varied applications. Less attention, however, has been paid to its analytical possibilities, even though many advantages have been postulated and a wide range of poorly water-soluble analytes are present in samples (or waste materials) from food and drink, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, military and other industries. The main approaches, developed in recent years to exploit the use of enzymes, antibodies or antibody mimics in water-restricted environments for analytical purposes, as well as possible future directions are briefly discussed.
Food Beverage Pharmaceutical Crude Sensor

"Biochemical Sensors The State-of-the-art"
Microchim. Acta 1995 Volume 120, Issue 1-4 Pages 243-255
Miguel de la Guardia

Abstract: The basic components of a (bio)chemical sensor and the main concepts involved in the (bio)chemical sensor methodology are considered in order to depict the state of the art of the development of research in this field, paying special attention to the evolution of the published scientific literature in analytical chemistry. (49 References)
Sensor

"Catalytic Electrooxidation Of NADH For Dehydrogenase Amperometric Biosensors"
Microchim. Acta 1997 Volume 126, Issue 1-2 Pages 11-32
Ioanis Katakis and Elena Dom&iacute;nguez

Abstract: The developments in the techniques of NADH catalytic oxidation relevant for incorporation in amperometric biosensors with dehydrogenase enzymes are reviewed with special emphasis in the years following 1990. The review stresses the direct electrocatalytic methods of NAD(+) recycling as opposed to enzymatic regeneration of the coenzyme. These developments are viewed and evaluated from a mechanistic perspective of recycling of NADH to enzymatically active NAD(+), and from the point of view of development of technologically useful reagentless dehydrogenase biosensors. An effort is made to propose a method for the standardization of evaluation of new mediating and direct coenzyme recycling schemes. A perspective is given for the requirements that have to be met for successful biosensor development incorporating dehydrogenase enzymes that open the analytical possibilities to a number of new analytes. The intrinsic limitations of the system are finally discussed and a view of the future of the held is presented. 147 References
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide oxidized Amperometry Sensor Electrode Electrode

"Tris (2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(ii) Electrogenerated Chemiluminescence In Analytical Science"
Microchim. Acta 1997 Volume 127, Issue 1-2 Pages 19-39
Won-Yong Lee

Abstract: Ru(bpy)(3)(2+) electrogenerated chemiluminescence (CL) has rapidly gained importance as a sensitive and selective detection method in analytical science. The Ru(bpy)(3)(2+) ECL is observed when Ru(bpy)(3)(3+) reacts with Ru(bpy)(3)(+) and yields an excited state Ru(bpy)(3)(2+). ECL emission can also be obtained when a variety of oxidants and reductants react with the reduced or oxidized forms of Ru(bpy)(3)(2+). Either the reductant or the oxidant can be treated as an analyte. The Ru(bpy)(3)(2+) ECL is used as a detection method for the determination of oxalate and a variety of amine-containing analytes without derivatization in flowing streams such as flow injection and HPLC. When the ECL format is used as a detector for HPLC, unstable post-column reagent addition can often be eliminated and, the problems of bath sample dilution and band broadening can be avoided because the Ru(bpy)(3)(3+) species are generated in situ in the reaction/observation flow cell. Since NADH is sensitively detected with the Ru(bpy)(3)(2+) ECL, many clinically important analytes can be detected by coupling them to dehydrogenase enzymes that utilize β-nicotinamide adenine cofactors to convert NAD(+) to NADH. Ru(bpy)(3)(2+)-derivatives are used as CL labels for immunoassay and PCR assay with Ru(bpy)(3)(2+)/tripropylamine ECL system. The Ru(bpy)(3)(2+) ECL label can be sensitively determined at subpicomolar concentrations, along with an extremely wide dynamic range of greater than six orders of magnitude. Furthermore, it can eliminate disposal and lifetime problems inherent in radio immunoassays. In this paper, basic principles of the Ru(bpy)(3)(2+) ECL are discussed. In addition, analytical applications of the Ru(bpy)(3)(2+) ECL are illustrated with examples. 90 References
Oxalate Chemiluminescence HPLC Electrode

"Flow Injection Immunoassays. A Review"
Microchim. Acta 1998 Volume 129, Issue 1-2 Pages 7-18
Yolanda Fintschenko and George S. Wilson

Abstract: A review with 61 references covering the application of flow injection analysis to immunoassays (FIA-IA). The advantages and limitations of this approach are discussed. Future directions, particularly those involving microfluidic systems are highlighted.
Immunoassay

"Flow Injection Immunoassays: Present And Future"
Microchem. J. 1992 Volume 45, Issue 2 Pages 121-128
Cy H. Pollemaa, Jaromir Ruzicka*, a,*, &Aring;ke Lernmarkb and Gary D. Christiana

Abstract: A brief review is presented, with 26 references, concerning general principles and detection methods. A novel sequential injection system is also described which uses immunomagnetic bead suspensions and makes it possible to carry out a number of different assays without physical restructuring. The recent development of the flow injection immunoassay (FIIA), beginning with one of the first publications in 1980 by Lim and Miller, has resulted in a growing field which combines the precise and reproducible timing of flow injection analysis (FIA) with immunoassays to yield assays which are carried out in a nonequil. time frame. These often faster assay methods require small volumes of sample and reduced sample handling. The advancement of this field is briefly reviewed in this paper with respect to the general methods and detection schemes applied. A novel method utilizing sequential injection (SI) is also introduced. The method uses immunomagnetic beads to create a renewable reaction column which does not require inline regeneration.
Immunoassay

"Flow Injection Analysis Of Wine - Accomplishments And Needs"
Microchem. J. 1992 Volume 45, Issue 2 Pages 114-120
Katja Wagner, Ursula Bilitewski and Rolf D. Schmid*

Abstract: A general review is presented, with 37 references, covering the application of flow injection analysis to the analysis of wine components and comparing them with conventional techniques. State-of-the-art methods are presented in the form of tables. A general review with 37 references is presented concerning the need for wine analysis and the application of flow injection analysis (FIA) for the determination of wine components. The state-of-the-art is presented in the form of tables. Different types of methods and systems are described and compared with conventional techniques. Some improvements in this field of research are also mentioned.
Wine

"Sensitivity In Flow Injection Analysis"
Microchem. J. 1992 Volume 45, Issue 2 Pages 189-209
M. Valc&aacute;rcel and M. D. Luque de Castro

Abstract: A review is presented (with diagrams) which concentrates on the different ways of increasing or decreasing analytical sensitivity (96 references). An overview of the different ways of altering sensitivity in flow injection analysis (FIA) is presented. Both types of alterations, decreasing or increasing sensitivity, can be achieved by real or pseudodilution or (pre)concentration. steps. The great versatility of FIA is once more reflected in the large number of modes in which this anal. parameter can be altered. A review with 96 refs.

"Flow Injection Analysis In The USSR"
Microchem. J. 1992 Volume 45, Issue 2 Pages 225-231
Yurii A. Zolotov and Lilija K. Shpigun*

Abstract: A review with 49 references of the basic research developments and applications of flow injection analysis in the USSR (1983-1991) is given.

"Flow Injection Online Sorbent Extraction Preconcentration And Separation For Flame And Graphite-furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry"
Microchem. J. 1992 Volume 45, Issue 2 Pages 163-177
Bernhard Welz

Abstract: A review with 33 references is presented that includes diagrams of the relevant systems. Significant progress has been made recently in online pre-concentration of trace elements for flame (FAAS) and graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS) by the use of solid sorbents. The use of microcolumns which were eluted in a direction opposite to the direction of sample loading, and an overall optimization of the system made it possible to increase efficiency and sampling rate substantially. Enrichment factors of 20-25 could be achieved with only 20 s loading time so that the sampling frequency could be increased to 120/h, a value which is compatible with routine FAAS operation. Online coupling of sorbent extraction pre-concentration with GFAAS was found to provide a number of important advantages. A 20 to 25-fold increase in sensitivity was typically obtained with 1 min pre-concentration, using eluate zone sampling for the most efficient analyte transfer into the graphite tube. An effective separation of the analyte element from interfering matrix components could be achieved using carefully designed wash steps between sample loading and elution. This resulted in detection limits for a number of trace elements which were essentially identical for pure solutions and samples with a high total salt content such as seawater. Finally, sorbent extraction could be used to pre-concentrate selectively one oxidation state of elements occurring in more than one valency, providing a means of speciation which is particularly attractive because of its speed of operation. Total analyte element concentrations could be determined after online or off-line reduction or oxidation of the other valency states. A review with 33 references.
Sea Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Sample preparation

"Spectrophotometric Flow Injection Techniques For The Multi-component Monitoring Of Process Streams"
Microchem. J. 1992 Volume 45, Issue 2 Pages 178-188
Paul MacLaurin and Paul J. Worsfold*

Abstract: An overview of simultaneous determinations in flow injection analysis (FIA) is presented and the advantages of photodiode array detection are discussed. The application of multivariate calibration procedures to nonselective data is outlined and examples of its use in FIA are reviewed. The role of flow injection techniques in process anal. and the potential of FIA-photodiode array-multivariate calibration systems for online multideterminations are also considered. A review with 107 references. An overview is presented, with 107 references. Particular reference is made to photodiode-array detection and the advantages of applying multivariate calibration procedures to the data.
Industrial Spectrophotometry

"Non-equilibrated Sample Manipulation - The Essence Of Flow Injection Analysis"
Microchem. J. 1992 Volume 45, Issue 2 Pages 137-142
Zhaolun Fang

Abstract: The limitations of existing definitions of flow injection analysis are discussed (with particular regard to non-equilibrium conditions) and a new definition is proposed. The essential features of flow injection analysis (FIA) are discussed, stressing its capabilities in performing quant. determinations under thermodynamically nonequil. conditions. Some existing definitions for FIA are also discussed, and a new definition is proposed.

"Putting The Chemistry Back Into Analytical Chemistry"
Microchem. J. 1992 Volume 45, Issue 2 Pages 143-162
Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: The need for cost-effective procedures in analytical chemistry is discussed, and is followed by a detailed review of flow injection analysis, with 132 references. These references are subdivided into a table of review articles concerned with flow injection atomic spectrometry from 1985 to 1991, and a table containing a survey of flow injection atomic spectrometry literature in 1990. A review with 132 references. Aspects of the current status of and research in anal. chemical are briefly discussed and the need for cost effective anal. procedures is emphasized. The present and future of a number of aspects of flow injection analysis are considered. These include the basic theory, the kinetic features, the control features, time-based methodology, and the coupling of sample pretreatment with instrumentation. Several aspects of this latter topic are considered with particular reference to the flow injection atomic spectrometry combination. Problems of kinetic mismatch between chemistry, manifold residence, and instrument operation are discussed and some possible solutions proposed including the use of closed loop manifolds.

"Injection Analysis - From Flow Injection Analysis To Batch-injection Analysis"
Microchem. J. 1992 Volume 45, Issue 2 Pages 219-224
Joseph Wang

Abstract: The principles and performance characteristics of batch-injection analysis are discussed and comparisons are made with flow injection analysis. The performance characteristics of batch-injection anal. (BIA) are evaluated. This nonflow injection technique results in many of the attractive features of flow injection analysis (FIA) while eliminating the need for a flow manifold. BIA has emerged from the coupling of controlled dispension, wall-jet detection, and huge dilution While greatly different in experimental setup, BIA and FIA share the same basic concept of reproducible transport and washout of microliter samples over the detector surface. The role of dispersion in BIA systems, means to promote chemical reactions, and future prospects are discussed.

"Latest Innovations In Graphite-furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry Technique"
Microchem. J. 1992 Volume 46, Issue 3 Pages 418-421
F. Mariconti

Abstract: An overview is presented, with 5 references, on the latest innovations in graphite-furnace AAS. Topics discussed include the transverse heated graphite atomizer, the possibility of running powdered solids through the slurry technique and the future possibility of using flow injection online with the graphite-furnace
Spectrophotometry

"Hyphenated Techniques Combined With Atomic Spectrometry For Environmental Studies"
Microchem. J. 1995 Volume 51, Issue 1-2 Pages 88-98
Wang X. O., Zhuang Z. X., Yang P. Y. and Huang B. L.

Abstract: The development and application of hyphenated techniques combined with atomic spectrometries for environmental analysis at Xiamen University, China, are described. The techniques include: flow injection online microcolumns combined with AAS, GFAAS, ICP AFS and ICP-AES for trace and ultratrace analysis of water; flow injection online solvent extraction combined with AAS and ICP-AES; flow injection online hydride generation for the elemental analysis of Chinese herbs and rain by AAS and ICP-AES; flow injection online coprecipitation-dissolution for the determination of trace heavy metals in seawater and rain by GFAAS and ICP-AES; and HPLC combined with ICP-AES for multielement speciation analysis of Chinese tea.
Metals, trace Metals, heavy Plant Plant Rain Sea HPLC Fluorescence Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Sample preparation

"New Developments In Flow Injection Vapor Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry"
Microchem. J. 1996 Volume 53, Issue 1 Pages 42-53
Fang Zhaolun a, Tao Guanhonga, Xu Shukuna, Liu Xuezhua and Wang Jingb

Abstract: A review is presented of the enhancements in sensitivity and selectivity brought about by new developments in flow injection techniques for combined FI-vapor generation AAS. In particular, selectivity enhancements by (i) optimization of FI parameters and reaction conditions, (ii) online separation of interferents and (iii) online sample matrix modification as well as sensitivity enhancements by (i) reagent addition, (ii) online coprecipitation pre-concentration and (iii) in situ pre-concentration of hydrides in a graphite furnace are discussed in detail. The enhancements are illustrated by applications in the trace or ultratrace determination of Ge, Se, As, Sb, Bi, Sn and Pb in environmental materials and Chinese herbal medicines. (28 references).
Trace elements Environmental Pharmaceutical Spectrophotometry

"Boron Determination A Review Of Analytical Methods"
Microchem. J. 1997 Volume 56, Issue 3 Pages 285-304
R. N. Sah and P. H. Brown

Abstract: This paper reviews published methods of sample preparation, determinand purification, and the determination of baron concentration and isotopic composition in a sample. The most common methods for the determination of B concentration are spectrophotometric and plasma-source spectrometric methods. Although most spectrophotometric methods are based on colorimetric reactions of B with azomethine-H, curcumin, or carmine, other colorimetric and fluorometric methods have also been used to some extent. These methods, in general, suffer from numerous interferences and have low sensitivity and precision. Application of nuclear reaction and atomic emission/absorption spectrometric (AES/AAS) methods has remained limited because these methods have poor sensitivity and suffer from serious memory effects and interferences. Among large number of published nuclear reaction methods only prompt-γ spectrometry has been of practical use. The prompt-γ method can determine B concentration in intact samples, which makes this method especially useful for some medical applications, including boron neutron capture therapy. However, this is a time-consuming method and not suitable for detection of low levels of B. Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) created a new dimension in B determination because of its simplicity, sensitivity, and multielement capability. However, it suffers interferences and is not adequately sensitive for some nutritional and medical applications involving animal tissues that are naturally low in B. All methods involving the measurement of B isotopic composition require a mass spectrometer. Thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) have been used to measure isotopic composition of B; however, these methods are time consuming and require extensive sample preparation and purification. Development of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) not only overcame most of the drawbacks of earlier methods, but also its capability of measuring B isotopes made possible (1) B concentration determination by isotope dilution, (2) verification of B concentration by isotope fingerprinting in routine analysis, and (3) determination of total B concentration and B isotope ratio for biological tracer studies in the same run. Therefore, plasma source MS appears to be the method of choice among present-day technologies. (C) 1997 Academic Press. 175 References
Boron Sample preparation Mass spectrometry

"Flow Cytometry: Rapid Biochemical Analysis Of Single Cells"
Anal. Biochem. 1982 Volume 125, Issue 2 Pages 225-242
Howard S. Kruth*

Abstract: Flow cytometry is a dynamic technology with rapidly increasing applications in medicine and biology. The process of staining analytes with specific dyes and of measuring them in individual cells differs from conventional biochemical analysis in which heterogeneous cells are analyzed as a group and results are expressed as average values per cell. An average value, however, may not be representative of each cell within a population. Consider the example of a cell population comprising two subpopulations: one subpopulation consists of cells deficient in analyte while the other contains cells enriched in the same analyte. Analysis of these heterogeneous cells as a group fails to reveal two different subpopulations.
Biochemical analysis Flow cytometry

"Use Of Chemically Modified Electrodes For Liquid Chromatography And Flow Injection Analysis"
Electroanalysis 1991 Volume 3, Issue 1 Pages 1-11
Erkang Wang, Huamin Ji, Weiying Hou

Abstract: The use of chemically modified electrodes (CMEs) for liquid chromatography and flow-injection analysis is reviewed. Electrochemical detection with CMEs based on electrocatalsis, permselectivity, ion flow in redox films, and ion transfer across the water-solidified nitrobenzene interface is discussed in terms of improving the stability, selectivity, and scope of electrochemical detectors and the detection of electroinactive substances. More than 90 references are included.
LC Electrode

"Flow Injection Stripping Analysis"
Electroanalysis 1991 Volume 3, Issue 6 Pages 457-467
M. D. De LuqueCastro, A. Izquierdo

Abstract: A review is presented, with 58 references, of voltammetric and potentiometric stripping associated with flow injection analysis (FIA). The versatility and flexibility of FIA manifolds for performing unique stripping procedures are evaluated, and the instrumentation, features and applications of stripping methods in FIA are critically discussed.
Metals, heavy Biological Electrode Potentiometric stripping analysis Voltammetry

"Column Liquid Chromatography In Combination With Immobilized Enzymes And Electrochemical Detection And Its Applications In Some Industrial Processes"
Electroanalysis 1992 Volume 4, Issue 4 Pages 403-427
Gy&ouml;rgy A. Marko-Varga

Abstract: A review, with 206 references. The first part of the paper provides a review of the pre- and post-column derivatization systems used in column liquid chromatography (CLC) in combination with immobilized enzyme reactors (IMERs) and electrochemical detection (EC). In the second part, an outline of important factors to consider in the optimization of CLC-IMER-EC systems are presented. Three industrial applications are described utilizing enzyme-based detection or enzymes for sample handling purposes. In two of the cases, CLC-IMER were used in combination with amperometric detection using chemical modified electrodes (CME). These applications were performed in the author's lab., and the high selectivity and sensitivity of these systems as well as the problems encountered in these complex samples will be discussed.
Fermentation broth Industrial HPLC Electrochemical analysis

"Unsegmented Flow Systems As Interfaces Between Samples And Electrochemical Detectors"
Electroanalysis 1992 Volume 4, Issue 6 Pages 601-613
M. D. Luque de Castro

Abstract: A review is presented, with 88 references, of the use of electrochemical detectors in flow injection analysis, with emphasis on miniaturization, automation, continuous separation and special applications.
Electrochemical analysis

"Ion-sensitive Field-effect Transistors And Ion-selective Electrodes As Sensors In Dynamic Systems"
Electroanalysis 1995 Volume 7, Issue 6 Pages 505-519
Andr&eacute;s Izquierdo, Mar&iacute;a D. Luque de Castro

Abstract: The use of the ion-selective sensors in continuous-flow systems is reviewed. Specific examples for selected analytes are given. Typical arrangements for different systems are described and performance comparisons are made. (145 references).
Field effect transistor Electrode Sensor

"Amperometric Biosensors Based On NAD(P)-dependent Dehydrogenase Enzymes"
Electroanalysis 1997 Volume 9, Issue 3 Pages 191-202
Maria Jes&uacute;s Lobo, Arturo J. Miranda, Paulino Tu&ntilde;&oacute;n

Abstract: This review deals with the use of pyridine-nucleotide dependent dehydrogenase enzymes in amperometric biosensor design. The electrochemistry of the nicotinamide coenzymes, their mechanism and the challenges associated with their direct oxidation on solid electrodes are discussed. In addition, a survey of the different solutions proposed in the literature for addressing these problems and some of their applications are presented. 175 References
Whole Amperometry Sensor Electrode

"Early Phases Of The Dispersion Of A Sample Injected In Poiseuille Flow"
J. Chromatogr. A 1979 Volume 186, Issue 1 Pages 353-370
Marcel J. E. Golay and John G. Atwood

Abstract: A mathematical simulation of the dispersion of a sample injected in a viscosity-controlled (Poiseuille flow) stream has been made to determine the behavior of the sample from injection time until the sample distribution has become substantially gaussian. The results show that for velocities much greater than the chromatographic optimu, and for flow of the order one to ten theoretical plate heights, an unusually unsymmetrical distribution develops. It gives rise to doubly peaked chromatograms, in agreement with curves actually observed in corresponding experiments.

"Continuous Separation Techniques In Flow Injection Analysis. A Review"
J. Chromatogr. A 1987 Volume 393, Issue 1 Pages 3-23
Miguel Valcarcel and M. Dolores Luque De Castro

Abstract: A review is presented of gas - liquid, liquid - liquid and liquid - solid separation techniques, and their applications in flow injection analysis. Particular attention is paid to the online coupling of HPLC and flow injection analysis. Examples are given. (122 references).
Spectrophotometry

"New Approaches To Coupling Flow Injection Analysis And High Performance Liquid Chromatography"
J. Chromatogr. A 1992 Volume 600, Issue 2 Pages 183-188
M. D. Luque de Castro* and M. Valc&aacute;rcel

Abstract: In pre-column arrangements (A), the flow injection system is placed before the LC column, whilst in post-column couplings (B), the chromatographic process takes place before the flow injection analysis. In each instance the downstream unit incorporates the detection module. Examples of the use of A include: the determination of Zn based on its activating effect on metal-free carboxypeptidase A immobilized in a controlled-pore-glass reactor; the coupling of a liquid - liquid extractor to a normal-phase chromatograph for the determination of caffeine in beverages and urine; and the coupling of an ultrasonic leaching cell for solid - liquid extraction processes such as in the determination of B in soil. Only those B systems incorporating two valves are considered to be true HPLC - flow injection analysis configurations. Examples of the use of B include: determination of aflatoxins in foodstuffs, based on enhancing their fluorescence by means of a redox reaction with Br; and the determination of bile acids, based on the production of NADH. A review with 15 references. An overview of the advantages gained in coupling a flow injection manifold to a liquid chromatograph is presented. Improvements in the analytical features arising from this association and the peculiar pre- and post-column arrangements are discussed, as are the promising prospects of arrangements to be developed for avoiding the preliminary steps of the analytical process.
Caffeine Environmental Urine Beverage HPLC

"Liquid Chromatography-mass Spectrometry In The Pharmaceutical Industry: Objectives And Needs"
J. Chromatogr. A 1982 Volume 251, Issue 2 Pages 141-151
F. Erni

Abstract: The role of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) in the analysis of drugs is discussed. The main fields of application are thermally labile compounds, compounds with low volatility and compounds with rather high molecular weights, all of which are not generally suitable for analysis by combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The objectives, needs, limitations and abilities of LC-MS for the analysis of by-products, degradation products, traces of drug substances for pharmacokinetic studies and metabolites in complex matrices are presented. The LC-MS coupling is discussed as a sophisticated LC detector for sensitive and selective quantitative determinations or as an online sample-introduction system for the mass spectrometer to obtain structural information for identification or structural elucidation. LC-MS combined with a flow-switching technique can be used for the analysis of mixtures containing large amounts of components which otherwise would be detrimental to the LC-MS technique. With flow injection techniques the LC-MS interface is used as a sample-introduction system with possibilities for sample preparation, sample clean-up and chemical derivatization.
Drugs Pharmaceutical HPLC Mass spectrometry

"Sampling And Analytical Strategies In Online Bioprocess Monitoring And Control"
J. Chromatogr. A 1996 Volume 725, Issue 1 Pages 13-27
N. C. van de Merbel, H. Lingeman and U. A. Th. Brinkman*

Abstract: A review is presented of the uses of online systems for monitoring small organic molecules in biotechnological processes are also discussed. Sampling techniques used including non-membrane, dialysis and ultrafiltration techniques are discussed. Analysis by FIA is fast, simple and inexpensive, but relatively non-selective compared to LC, which allows determination of more than one component per run. (37 references).
Fermentation broth

"Methods Of Analysis Of Polar Aromatic Sulfonates From Aquatic Environments"
J. Chromatogr. A 1996 Volume 733, Issue 1-2 Pages 473-489
Thorsten Reemtsma

Abstract: Methods for the analysis of aromatic sulfonates, such as linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LAS) and (amino- and hydroxy-substituted) benzene and naphthalene sulfonates, from aqueous media are reviewed. All analytical steps including the extraction from water, clean-up from co-extracted substances, chromatographic separation and detection, and methods of identification of these compound classes are described and discussed. The techniques employed are solid-phase extraction, various modes of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), capillary electrophoresis, gas chromatography (GC), GC-mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, continuous-flow- and flow injection mass spectrometry, and spectroscopic methods. A remarkable gap becomes obvious between novel analytical methods developed with standard mixtures and those methods readily employable for environmental analysis. Finally, suggestions for future analytical developments are given.
Sulfonamides Water Environmental HPLC Mass spectrometry

"Fluorogenic Reactions For Biomedical Chromatography"
J. Chromatogr. B 1994 Volume 659, Issue 1-2 Pages 85-107
Yosuke Ohkura*, Masaaki Kai and Hitoshi Nohta

Abstract: A number of fluorogenic reactions, which are used for HPLC detection systems by means of pre- and/or post-column derivatization are reviewed, with respect to sensitivity and selectivity for the determination of biomolecules. Fluorescence-generating and fluorescence-tagging reactions are discussed. The fluorogenic reactions allow analytes to be detected by HPLC at picomole to subfemtomole levels. (183 references).
Biological HPLC

"Derivatization Reactions For The Determination Of Aflatoxins By Liquid Chromatography With Fluorescence Detection"
J. Chromatogr. B 1994 Volume 659, Issue 1-2 Pages 127-137
W. Th. Kok

Abstract: A review is presented of derivatization methods for the fluorimetric detection of aflatoxins by HPLC. The sensitivity for aflatoxins B1 and B2 was improved by using special mobile phases or a flow cell packed with silica-gel particles. Optimum conditions for the fluorimetric determination of aflatoxins B1 and G1 by pre-column derivatization with TFA or by post-column derivatization with iodine or bromine are discussed. The methods are compared with respect to experimental convenience, selectivity, reproducibility and suitability for automation. (76 references).
Aflatoxin B1 Aflatoxin B2 Aflatoxin G1 HPLC Fluorescence

"Derivatization Of Thiol-containing Compounds"
J. Chromatogr. B 1994 Volume 659, Issue 1-2 Pages 227-241
Kazutake Shimada* and Kuniko Mitamura

Abstract: Derivatization reagents for thiols are reviewed with respect to their reactivity, selectivity, spectroscopic characteristics and their applicability to HPLC, with UV and electrochemical detection. The derivatization reagents contains a functional group e.g. an N-substituted maleimide, active halogen or aziridine, which react with the thiol group. Derivatization for use in FIA, TLC or GC-MS is also described. (77 references).
Thiols HPLC Spectrophotometry Electrochemical analysis GPC Mass spectrometry

"General Strategies And Selection Of Derivatization Reactions For Liquid Chromatography And Capillary Electrophoresis"
J. Chromatogr. B 1994 Volume 659, Issue 1-2 Pages 1-17
Ira S. Krulla,*, Zdenek Deylb and Hnk Lingemanc

Abstract: The general strategies, reasons and the different possibilities for the derivatization of biomedically important compounds are reviewed. Different approaches apply for small versus large analyte molecules, different advantages and disadvantages are visualized with pre- and post-column arrangements. Particular interest is focused upon solid-phase derivatization reagents.
LC Electrophoresis

"Derivatization Reactions Applicable To Pesticide Determination By High Performance Liquid Chromatography"
J. Chromatogr. B 1994 Volume 659, Issue 1-2 Pages 243-257
Brian D. McGarvey

Abstract: The literature dealing with HPLC analytical methods for pesticides employing derivatization reactions is reviewed. Included are methods for insecticides, acaricides, nematicides, antimicrobials, herbicides and a rodenticide. Derivatization reactions are employed mainly for the purpose of increasing sensitivity or selectivity for the UV or, more frequently, fluorescence detectors. Of the pre-column and post-column derivatization methods reviewed, post-column methods are the more commonly used.
Pesticides Biological HPLC Spectrophotometry

"Bioseparation And Bioanalytical Techniques In Environmental Monitoring"
J. Chromatogr. B 1998 Volume 715, Issue 1 Pages 211-228
J. M. Van Emon*, C. L. Gerlach and K. Bowman

Abstract: The growing use of antibody-based separation methods has paralleled the expansion of immunochemical detection methods in moving beyond the clinical diagnostic field to applications in environmental monitoring. In recent years high-performance immunoaffinity chromatography, which began as a separation technique in biochemical and clinical research, has been adapted for separating and quantifying environmental pollutants. Bioaffinity offers a selective biological basis for separation that can be incorporated into a modular analytical process for more efficient environmental analysis. The use of immunoaffinity chromatography for separation complements the use of immunoassay for detection. A widely used immunochemical detection method for environmental analyzes is enzyme immunoassay. The objective of this paper is to review the status of bioaffinity-based analytical procedures for environmental applications and human exposure assessment studies. Environmental methods based on bioaffinity range from mature immunoassays to emerging techniques such as immunosensors and immunoaffinity chromatography procedures for small molecules.
Environmental Immunoassay LC

"Electrocatalysis At Platinum Electrodes For Anodic Electroanalysis"
J. Electroanal. Chem. 1984 Volume 168, Issue 1 Pages 227-248
D. S. Austin, J. A. Polta, T. Z. Polta, A. P. -C. Tang, T. D. Cabelka* and D. C. Johnson

Abstract: In the anodic oxidation of organic compounds at platinum electrodes, involving catalysis by formation of PtOH, the electrocatalytic response is short-lived owing to the adsorption of reaction products. Desorption is achieved by the application of a large positive pulse to generate a complete surface layer of PtO, then a negative pulse to restore a 'clean' reduced platinum surface on which analyte is adsorbed before a positive step of potential for electrocatalytic detection. Multi-step waveforms at frequencies between 0.5 and 2 Hz are described for successful amperometric detection of carbohydrates, amino-acids and S compounds in flow injection and chromatographic systems. Detection limits for S compounds are of the order of 50 ppb. Details given include those for determination of I- and Cl-; the detection limit for Cl- is ~0.1 µM. A β-PbO2 electrode at constant potential has been used in determining As(OH)3 and thiourea. A literature review is included. (58 references).
Chloride Iodide Sulfanilamide Thiosulfate ion Thiourea Electrode Potentiometry

"Flow Phenomena In Flow Injection Analysis And Flow Electrolysis"
J. Electroanal. Chem. 1988 Volume 239, Issue 1 Pages 1-7
Roman E. Sioda and David J. Curran

Abstract: The effect of the parabolic flow velocity distribution in a tube has been analyzed with regard to (1) the radial distribution of flow rate and, (2) the variability of mass transfer to a wire electrode placed diametrically in a tube.
Electrochemical analysis

"Flow Injection Analysis. A New Approach To Pharmaceutical Determinations"
J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 1985 Volume 3, Issue 2 Pages 105-121
Angel R&iacute;os, M. Dolores Luque De Castro and Miguel Valc&aacute;rcel*

Abstract: A review is presented of flow injection analysis, particularly automated multiple flow injection analysis, closed-loop systems and the use of electroanalytical techniques in conjunction with flow injection analysis for pharmaceutical applications. (113 references).
Pharmaceutical

"Novel Strategies In Flow Injection Analysis"
J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 1988 Volume 6, Issue 6-8 Pages 585-598
F. Lazaro, M. D. Luque De Castro and M. Valcarcel*

Abstract: A review is presented, with 145 references, of recent advances in flow injection analysis, and of future trends and the potential of the technique.

"Flow Injection Analysis Of Pharmaceuticals"
J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 1989 Volume 7, Issue 12 Pages 1291-1300
M. D. Luque de Castro* and M. Valc&aacute;rcel

Abstract: An overview of the most representative problems solved by flow injection analysis (FIA) in drug analysis is presented. Different aspects of this technique which can be manipulated with specific purposes are discussed and special emphasis is placed on the possibilities of FIA in dissolution test control. 102 references.
Drugs Pharmaceutical

"Automation Of Pharmaceutical Dissolution Testing By Flow Injection Analysis"
J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 1990 Volume 8, Issue 4 Pages 329-336
M. D. Luque de Castro and M. Valc&aacute;rcel

Abstract: The different types of instruments used for monitoring pharmaceutical dissolution testing are presented. Their features and the need for automation are critically discussed. The advantages of flow injection analysis in this respect are illustrated by a variety of examples clearly showing its adaptability to the different problems posed by other automatic and non-automatic alternatives. Existing instruments for monitoring dissolution testing of pharmaceuticals are discussed with particular reference to the need for automation. The application of flow injection analysis to interface between dissolution vessels and analytical instruments is described.
Pharmaceutical

"Novel Flow Injection Analysis Systems For Drug Analysis"
J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 1992 Volume 10, Issue 10-12 Pages 769-773
Gary D. Christian

Abstract: Principles of operation and advantages of a cam-driven sinusoidal-flow syringe pump are described for use in conventional FIA or sequential injection analysis (SIA). SIA is a modified flow method that allows most analyzes to be performed on a single line with only one syringe. The apparatus is relatively cheap, readily automated and easily adaptable to different chemical methods. Flow injection coulometric titration is described as a valuable technique for analysis of unstable reagents or standards. Acid-base, redox, precipitation and complexometric titrants can be generated electrochemically, as can unstable titrants such as Cu(I), Br, Cl and Cr(II). The techniques described have potential for automatic drug assays. A review with 32 references. Flow injection analysis (FIA) has become a versatile tool for rapid and automated analysis. As its capabilities have increased, so have the complexity and operation of the apparatus. Ways to simplify both the apparatus and the application of injection techniques are investigated. A novel cam-driven syringe pump and the development of sequential injection analysis (SIA) are discussed, and some applications presented. Flow injection coulometric titrations. are presented as a means to further alleviate reagent stability and calibration problems. These systems have potential for automatically carrying out many drug assays.
Drugs Pharmaceutical Coulometry

"Chemiluminescence-based Detection: Principles And Analytical Applications In Flowing Streams And In Immunoassays"
J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 1998 Volume 17, Issue 6-7 Pages 941-953
W. R. G. Baeyensa,*, S. G. Schulmanb, A. C. Calokerinosc, Y. Zhaoa, A. Ma Garc&iacute;a Campa&ntilde;ad, K. Nakashimae and D. De Keukeleiref

Abstract: A review with 57 references. The present paper provides the principles of chemiluminescence (CL) and its powerful applications in analytical chemistry, mainly in the area of flow injection analysis, column liquid chromatography and capillary electrophoretic separating systems, and its potential in immunoassays. CL is light produced by a chemical reaction. The most common advantages of chemiluminescent reactions are the relatively simple instrumentation required, the very low detection limits and wide dynamic ranges, which have contributed to the interest of CL detection in flow injection analysis, high performance liquid chromatography, including miniaturized systems, and, most recently, the exploding area of capillary electrophoresis. The latter powerful microanalysis separation technique offers high numbers of theoretical plates and relatively short analysis times requiring only small sample volumes, the migrating system comprising aqueous buffer solutions. In non-isotopic immunoassays, covering a great variety of applications in human and veterinary medicine, forensic medicine, agriculture and food industry, the radioisotope is replaced by a fluorescence or chemiluminescent label. The use of CL as a detection principle permits quant. determination of various compounds at low concentrations Disadvantages of the CL-based technique may include lack of sufficient selectivity and sensitivity to various physicochem. factors.
Amino Acids Electrophoresis Chemiluminescence HPLC Immunoassay

"Future Applications Of ISFETs"
Sens. Actuat. B 1991 Volume 4, Issue 1 Pages 125-133
P. Bergveld

Abstract: The applications of ISFETs with respect to the measurement of ion fluxes are reviewed. The fast response of an ISFET has already been exploited in flow-through cells. To solve the reference electrode problem, a differential measurement set-up has been proposed in which the ISFET response is measured with respect to a REFET. Flow-through cells with two identical ISFETs and ISFETs with retarded responses are described. Flow injection titration systems, coulometric titrations and ion-step experiments with immunoFETs are considered. A review is presented, with 22 references. Future application areas to be exploited include flow-through systems and flow injection analysis, and biosenors.
Coulometry Field effect transistor Sensor

"Trends In Biosensor Research And Development"
Sens. Actuat. B 1993 Volume 13, Issue 1-3 Pages 12-15
Isao Karube* and Kenji Yokoyama

Abstract: An overview is presented of developments in biosensor technology. The use of micro-machining fabrication techniques for the construction of, e.g., detection units for FIA, electrochemical flow cells and chemiluminescent detectors is described. Biosensors for clinical analysis, needle-type biosensors for sugar in fruit, acetylcholine microsensors using carbon-fiber electrodes and glutamate microsensors for neuroscience are all discussed. (7 references).
Sensor Clinical analysis

"Inductively Coupled Plasma - Atomic-emission Spectroscopy With Flow Injection Analysis"
Spectrochim. Acta B 1983 Volume 38, Issue 1-2 Pages 93-105
Stanley Greenfield

Abstract: Flow injection analysis is applied for solution introduction into an inductively coupled plasma discharge. Properties and advantages of transient emission signals, the analysis of Portland cement, and application of signal integration and multielement FIA-ICP are described. The possibilities of FIA-ICP for 'instant' signal-to-background measurement, calibration by standard additions and exponential dilution, and separation methods are evaluated.
Calcium Commercial product Geological Spectrophotometry

"Flow Injection Analysis: A Novel Tool For Plasma Spectroscopy"
Spectrochim. Acta B 1987 Volume 42, Issue 1-2 Pages 157-167
Gary D. Christian and Jaromir Ruzicka

Abstract: A review is presented, with 40 references.
Spectrophotometry

"Determination Of Metals In Biofluids And Tissues Sample Preparation Methods For Atomic Spectroscopic Techniques"
Spectrochim. Acta B 1996 Volume 51, Issue 3 Pages 291-319
Kunnath S. Subramanian

Abstract: Several sample preparation methods unique to each instrumental technique exist for the elemental analysis of biological specimens, but no review or book has dealt with them. The present review is an attempt to fill this void and focuses on sample preparation methods unique to atomic and X-ray spectroscopic techniques. The techniques covered are: flame and electrothermal AAS, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) since these are most commonly used in trace element analysis of biological materials. The intent is not to present the procedural details for the various tissues or elements, but rather to highlight the methods which are unique to each instrument. The bibliography accompanying this review should aid the analytical chemist in his/her search for the detailed preparation protocols.
Metals Biological fluid Biological tissue Spectrophotometry HPLC Mass spectrometry Spectrophotometry

"Atomic-spectrometric Detection Of Hydride-forming Elements Following In Situ Trapping Within A Graphite Furnace"
Spectrochim. Acta B 1996 Volume 51, Issue 4 Pages 377-397
H. Matusiewicz*, a,* and R. E. Sturgeonb

Abstract: A review, largely in tabular form, is presented on the use of the graphite furnace for both sample-trapping pre-concentration and vaporization-atomization in hydride-generation and cold vapor AAS, microwave-induced plasma AES, ICP-MS and furnace-atomization non-thermal-excitation spectrophotometry (FANES) after both batch and flow injection sample introduction. (82 references).
Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Mass spectrometry

"New Developments In Thermospray Sample Introduction For Atomic Spectrometry"
Spectrochim. Acta B 1997 Volume 52, Issue 8 Pages 1087-1104
Timothy Shawn Conver, Jinfu Yang and John A. Koropchak*

Abstract: The status of thermospray sample introduction for analytical atomic spectrometry was last reviewed in 1992. In this review, we summarize developments in this field since that time, including investigations of aerosol generation processes, noise diagnosis and control with inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission or mass spectrometry (ICP-AES/MS), high flow thermospray, the use of dual-stage desolvation systems based on membrane dryers, and the utilization of thermospray with axially viewed ICP-AES. Since a major advantage of methods based on thermospray is improved limits of detection, the emphasis for applications of thermospray with ICP spectrometries remains focused on environmental sample types, particularly with ICP-MS. Relatedly, the use of thermospray as a means for the direct speciation of Se is also under development. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. 66 References
Spectrophotometry Mass spectrometry Mass spectrometry

"Trends And Potentials In Flow Injection Online Separation And Preconcentration Techniques For Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry"
Spectrochim. Acta B 1998 Volume 53, Issue 10 Pages 1371-1379
Zhao-Lun Fang*

Abstract: Recent progress in flow injection online separation and pre-concentration techniques for electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (ETAAS) are reviewed with 36 refs., stressing the advancements made within the past 2 or 3 yr. Important trends and potentials for future development are discussed, including the use of air-transport and air-segmentation in online separation systems, the use of knotted reactors as a sorption medium, and other designs for online coprecipitation and solvent extraction systems to improve the robustness and efficiency of online separation systems for ETAAS.
Spectrophotometry

"Speciation Analysis: Where Is It Going? An Attempt At A Forecast."
Spectrochim. Acta B 1998 Volume 53, Issue 2 Pages 169-175
Bernhard Welz

Abstract: In the foreseeable future many more laboratories will be forced by legislation and/or by economic considerations to carry out speciation analyzes. In the selection of the methods of choice, parameters such as time, cost and automation will play a much more important role than they do today. Because of the numerous manual pretreatment steps involved, conventional gas chromatographic (GC) separation procedures will decrease in importance. Vapor-generation cryotrapping-GC is significantly faster and easily automated. The recently described integrated dissolution, extraction, and derivatization in a focused microwave field may, however, introduce new dimensions in sample preparation for GC coupled to atomic spectrometry. High pressure liquid chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (HPLC-ICP-MS) will further gain in importance, particularly in research, because it is the most powerful system for speciation analysis currently available. However, there will be a revival of simple non-chromatographic procedures that are easily automated using flow injection techniques and that for many routine applications perfectly serve the purpose.

"Inorganic Trace Analysis By Mass Spectrometry"
Spectrochim. Acta B 1998 Volume 53, Issue 11 Pages 1475-1506
Johanna Sabine Becker* and Hans-Joachim Dietze

Abstract: Mass spectrometric methods for the trace analysis of inorganic materials with their ability to provide a very sensitive multielemental analysis have been established for the determination of trace and ultratrace elements in high-purity materials (metals, semiconductors and insulators), in different technical samples (e.g. alloys, pure chemicals, ceramics, thin films, ion-implanted semiconductors), in environmental samples (waters, soils, biological and medical materials) and geological samples. Whereas such techniques as spark source mass spectrometry (SSMS), laser ionization mass spectrometry (LIMS), laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), glow discharge mass spectrometry (GDMS), secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) have multielemental capability, other methods such as thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) and resonance ionization mass spectrometry (RIMS) have been used for sensitive mono- or oligoelemental ultratrace analysis (and precise determination of isotopic ratios) in solid samples. The limits of detection for chemical elements using these mass spectrometric techniques are in the low ng g-1 concentration range. The quantification of the analytical results of mass spectrometric methods is sometimes difficult due to a lack of matrix-fitted multielement standard reference materials (SRMs) for many solid samples. Therefore, owing to the simple quantification procedure of the aqueous solution, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) is being increasingly used for the characterization of solid samples after sample dissolution. ICP-MS is often combined with special sample introduction equipment (e.g. flow injection, hydride generation, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) or electrothermal vaporization) or an off-line matrix separation and enrichment of trace impurities (especially for characterization of high-purity materials and environmental samples) is used in order to improve the detection limits of trace elements. Furthermore, the determination of chemical elements in the trace and ultratrace concentration range is often difficult and can be disturbed through mass interferences of analyte ions by molecular ions at the same nominal mass. By applying double-focusing sector field mass spectrometry at the required mass resolution-by the mass spectrometric separation of molecular ions from the analyte ions-it is often possible to overcome these interference problems. Commercial instrumental equipment, the capability (detection limits, accuracy, precision) and the analytical application fields of mass spectrometric methods for the determination of trace and ultratrace elements and for surface analysis are discussed.
Inorganic compounds Mass spectrometry

"Use Of Immobilized Enzyme Reactors In Flow Injection Analysis"
Methods Enzymol. 1988 Volume 137, Issue 1 Pages 271-287
Mat H. Ho

Abstract: Enzymes are useful as analytical reagents due to their selectivity and ability to catalyze reactions of substrates at low concentrations. Enzyme-based analyzes are successfully applied to various compounds, and considerable attention is given to the use of these reagents in flow-injection systems. Because no separation is involved in flow-injection analysis (FIA), the specificity of an assay can be achieved by using an enzyme that is specific for the analyte. Incorporation of the selectivity of an enzyme together with the simplicity, versatility, good precision, high sampling rate, low cost, and automation of FIA provides a useful system for a broad range of applications, particularly for the analysis of large numbers of samples in clinical laboratories. Purified enzymes suitable for analytical use are expensive, and large quantities of these reagents are consumed in the flow systems, making the cost of the analysis exceedingly high. The limited stability of enzymes in solutions may lead to poor reproducibility. These problems can be overcome by using immobilized enzyme reactors. The chapter discusses the use of immobilized enzyme reactors in FIA. Several typical applications with different types of reactors are also presented.

"One-Shot Flow Injection Analysis With Immobilized Enzyme Columns: Clinical Applications"
Anal. Sci. 1987 Volume 3, Issue 3 Pages 277-278
M. OHYABU, M. FUJIMURA, K. TANIMIZU, Y. OKUNO, M. TABATA, M. TOTANI and T. MURACH

Abstract: A flow injection system is described (with diagrams) for the determination of glucose, lactic acid, uric acid and urea-N in serum, plasma or urine. Detection is by chemiluminescence at 425 nm after reaction of enzymatically formed H2O2 with luminol.
Glucose Lactic acid Uric acid Nitrogen, urea Blood Plasma Blood Serum Urine Clinical analysis Chemiluminescence

"Stopped-flow Time Difference Analysis. A Review"
Anal. Sci. 1988 Volume 4, Issue 5 Pages 445-454
K. HIROMI and K. KANAYA

Abstract: A novel analytical method which includes absorbance measurements by using stopped-flow apparatuses was developed, which can be applied to determine absorbance changes as low as 0.002 O.D, with good precision in a time range of less than seconds, even for background absorbances of 1.5 to 2.0 O.D. This method, termed 'stopped -flow time difference analysis' (abbreviated to SFTDA), utilizes the progress curve of a reaction for both quantitative and qualitative analyzes, based on the absorbance change and the rate of reaction, respectively. A differential kinetic analysis of mixed components is possible, due to the different reaction rates of the components, which can also be effective to exclude interference by coexisting materials. Several examples of the applications of the SFTDA method with macro-apparatuses are described, which include a determination of ascorbic acid down to 10^-7 M, a highly sensitive determination of inorganic phosphate of ppb and sup-ppb level in environmental water, and an improvement in several characteristics of the methods for protein determination. Two types of microstopped- flow apparatuses were built, which need only 1/10 of the sample amount necessary for conventional macro-apparatuses, and still have a comparable performance. Their utility in clinical chemistry is demonstrated.
Protein Food Clinical analysis Spectrophotometry

"High Performance Liquid Chromatography Of Bioactive Substances Using Bifunctional Fluorigenic Reagents For Derivatization. Review"
Anal. Sci. 1989 Volume 5, Issue 4 Pages 371-388
Y. OHKURA

Abstract: A review is presented of pre- and post-column derivatization methods for HPLC in which bifunctional compounds are used to react with 1,2-dioxo- or mono-oxo-compounds to yield fluorescent cyclic products. Examples are provided of applications to, e.g., aldehydes, 2-oxo-acids, catecholamines, peptides, fatty acids (including prostaglandins), nucleic acids derivatives and biogenic alcohols. (132 references).
Aldehydes Catecholamines Peptides Fatty acids Nucleic acids Alcohols HPLC Fluorescence

"Ion-selective Field-effect Transistors: Principles And Applications In Clinical Chemistry And Biology"
Anal. Proc. 1982 Volume 19, Issue 2 Pages 65-68
J. Janata

Abstract: The principles of operation of ion-selective field effect transistors (ISFET) have been recently reviewed.l For the purpose of this paper it suffices to realise that an ISFET is a device in which the ion-selective membrane is integrated with the solid-state pre-amplifier. A schematic diagram of this sensor is shown in Fig. 1 (a). A cross-section of the ISFET chip is shown in Fig. l(b) together with a schematic diagram of the whole package in Fig. l(c)....
Calcium pH Potassium Whole Clinical analysis Field effect transistor

"Refractive Index Effect In Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1981 Volume 18, Issue 2 Pages 69-73
G. Ham

Abstract: Flow-injection analysis (FIA) is a technique that has developed rapidly over the last few years, as shown by the proliferation of published papers. The advantages of simplicity of equipment and of high sampling rates have been exploited to the full. However, when colorimetric detection is used the equipment may be sensitive to differences in refractive indices (RI) between sample and reagent background if the absorbance of the reacted sample is low. The origin of this effect has been described by Betteridge et a1.(1) and is characterized by a positive and negative peak as the sample passes through the flow cell. This RI effect is superimposed on the absorbance peak of the sample and may alter the shape and height of the peak. It causes restrictions to be placed on the detection limit for a particular system and in order to obtain meaningful results the calibration solutions must be carefully matched to the samples. In common with other simple colorimetric procedures, blank determinations must be made on colored samples which absorb at the measuring wavelength. Some work that has been carried out to minimise the RI effect is described.
Phosphate Refractometry Spectrophotometry

"Flow Injection Analysis: New Analytical Methods Based On The Use Of Potentiometric And Spectrophotometric Flow-through Detectors"
Anal. Proc. 1981 Volume 18, Issue 6 Pages 261-263
E. H. Hansen

Abstract: Flow injection analysis (FIA) is based on the controlled injection of a precisely metered liquid sample volume into a continuously moving, non-segmented carrier (reagent) stream with which the sample zone is mixed (and possibly also with other reagents added sequentially downstream), resulting in the formation of a species that can be measured by a suitable flow-through detector. As the exact timing of the FIA system allows the concept of steadystate measurement to be abandoned, the signal output is usually in the form of a sharp peak, the maximum value of which yields the analytical readout. The dispersion (D) of the sample zone in FIA is defined by D = CO/Cmax-w, here COi s the original analyte concentration and Cm^- is the concentration at peak maximum, and by changing the flow parameters the dispersion can be manipulated to suit exactly the requirements of an individual analytical procedure. FIA procedures can be classified according to the degree of dispersion applied, i.e., limited, medium or large. Examples from each of these groups are given below.
Carbon dioxide Potentiometry Spectrophotometry

"Luminescence Detection In Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1981 Volume 18, Issue 6 Pages 264-266
J. N. Miller

Abstract: Many analyzes in biochemical and environmental sciences present formidable problems to the analyst: in addition to the requirements of extreme sensitivity and selectivity (arising from the small and/or dilute samples, and the complex sample matrices, respectively), satisfactory methods should be simple, readily automated and economical in their consumption of reagents. There may also be a requirement for portable apparatus, for example in field studies or bedside patient monitoring. In these circumstances the convenience and flexibility of flow injection analysisl-3 offer many advantages. Surprisingly, however, only a small proportion of the rapidly expanding literature on flow injection methods describes the application of photoluminescence and chemiluminescence detection methods (4-9). This paper reviews the work performed in the author's laboratory to develop procedures combining flow injection and luminescence methods.
Drugs Water Clinical analysis Luminescence

"Theory And Principles Of Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1981 Volume 18, Issue 6 Pages 267-269
J. Ruzicka

Abstract: This accurate and versatile technique is capable of sampling rates of up to 200 samples per hour, yet its most valuable asset is the simplicity of the experimental set-up. The method can be used to automate any colorimetric, fluorimetric, nephelometric or other optical instrumental method, provided that the reaction used is sufficiently fast. Furthermore, electrochemical detection, such as potentiometric pH or pCa measurement, can be executed rapidly and reproducibly.
Calcium pH Spectrophotometry Fluorescence Nephelometry Potentiometry

"Computer Assisted Optimization Of Chemical Systems, In Particular Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1983 Volume 20, Issue 3 Pages 108-109
A. P. Wade

Abstract: A modified simplex method (cf. Betteridge et al., Anal. Chem., 1983, 55, 1292) is used to optimize experimental conditions for multi-variable chemical systems, e.g., the determination of isoprenaline by flow injection analysis, the sensitivity of the catalytic polarographic wave for the uranyl ion - nitrate system and the reaction between 4-(2-pyridylazo)resorcinol and KMnO4
Isoprenaline Spectrophotometry

"Selective Detection In Liquid Chromatography Through Post-column Derivatization And Fluorescence Monitoring"
Anal. Proc. 1983 Volume 20, Issue 7 Pages 354-356
U. A. Th. Brinkman, R. W. Frei

Abstract: A review, mainly of the authors' own work, on online post-column derivatization reactions (based on ion-pair formation, UV irradiation and ligand exchange) is presented. The reactions, when coupled with fluorescence detection, provide selective and sensitive methods for determining trace components in biological and environmental samples. (6 references)
HPLC Fluorescence

"Flow Injection Methods And Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry"
Anal. Proc. 1983 Volume 20, Issue 9 Pages 488-491
P. J. Worsfold and Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: The literature is reviewed. (19 references.).
Spectrophotometry

"Optimization Of Flow Injection Analysis And Polarography By The Modified Simplex Method"
Anal. Proc. 1983 Volume 20, Issue 10 Pages 523-527
A. P. Wade

Abstract: The modified Simplex method is outlined, and its application to the optimization of single-, two- and multiple-factor responses in flow injection and polarographic analyzes and in ninhydrin amino-acid analysis, respectively, is reviewed. The method allows efficient optimization of several variables simultaneously, and is usually faster and more reliable than univariate methods. (13 references)
Amino Acids Polarography

"Optimization Of Flow Injection Analysis And Polarography By The Modified Simplex Method"
Anal. Proc. 1983 Volume 20, Issue 10 Pages 523-527
A. P. Wade

Abstract: The modified Simplex method is outlined, and its application to the optimization of single-, two- and multiple-factor responses in flow injection and polarographic analyzes and in ninhydrin amino-acid analysis, respectively, is reviewed. The method allows efficient optimization of several variables simultaneously, and is usually faster and more reliable than univariate methods. (13 references)
Amino Acids Polarography

"Biosensors And Their Uses In Flow Injection Systems"
Anal. Proc. 1983 Volume 20, Issue 11 Pages 568-568
Michael Thompson, Ulrich J. Krull and Leah Bendell-Young

Abstract: Investigations of the physical properties and of the potential utility of artificial bi-layer lipid membranes as detectors in flow injection systems are reviewed. (8 references)
Valinomycin Clinical analysis Field effect transistor Electrode Sensor

"Flow Analysis With Electrochemical Detection"
Anal. Proc. 1983 Volume 20, Issue 11 Pages 562-565
E. Pungor, K. T&oacute;th

Abstract: Procedures developed in the authors' laboratory are discussed briefly. The construction of a flow-through micro-conductivity and permittivity detector cell is described. (12 references)
Conductometry Permittivity

"Introduction To Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1983 Volume 20, Issue 9 Pages 486-491
P. J. Worsfold and Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: The following is a collective summary of five of the papers presented at a Meeting of the North-East Region held on December Sth, 1982, at the British Steel Laboratories, Sheffield. A conventional summary of the sixth, by Dr. J. F. Tyson, follows the collective summary.

"Flow Injection Analysis - A New Approach To Laboratory Automation"
Anal. Proc. 1983 Volume 20, Issue 9 Pages 486-486
P. J. Worsfold and Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: The introductory lecture was given by Dr. E. H. Hansen (Technical University of Denmark). He described FIA as 'the art of optimized transport' and suggested that the three cornerstones upon which the technique is based are (1) sample injection, (2) controlled dispersion and (3) reproducible timing. A known volume of sample is introduced into the carrier stream via a rotary injection valve and its subsequent dispersion is controlled by the sample volume, carrier flow-rate and the length and diameter of the mixing coil. In the absence of air segmentation the non-compressible liquid stream provides for reproducible timing of events. This allows the concept of the steady state to be abandoned and therefore a reproducible readout is obtained even when mixing is incomplete, the chemical reaction is not at equilibrium and the signal is transient.

"Simulation And Modeling In Chemical Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1984 Volume 21, Issue 4 Pages 139-140
D. Betteridge

Abstract: A short review, with 4 references, is presented of computer simulation and modeling in the optimization of an auto-analyzer., in the application of queuing theory to the analysis of sample throughput and in simulation of flow injection analysis.

"Clinical Applications Of Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1984 Volume 21, Issue 10 Pages 376-377
Paul J. Worsfold

Abstract: A review is presented, covering gradient techniques, versatile manifold design and use of the procedure as a sample transport system. (7 references).
Clinical analysis

"Optimization Of Conditions For Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1984 Volume 21, Issue 10 Pages 373-374
A. P. Wade

Abstract: A short review is presented, with 20 references.

"Flow Injection Analysis Combined With Atomic Absorption Spectrometry"
Anal. Proc. 1984 Volume 21, Issue 10 Pages 377-378
Julian Tyson

Abstract: In this review, matrix effects, sample pre-treatment and calibration are discussed. (12 references).
Spectrophotometry

"Practical Aspects Of Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1984 Volume 21, Issue 10 Pages 375-376
A. Shaw

Abstract: The development of colorigenic flow injection methods for use with a microprocessor-controlled, commercial system (Tecator FIAstar) is outlined.
Spectrophotometry

"Flow Injection Analysis: Fundamentals And Recent Developments"
Anal. Proc. 1984 Volume 21, Issue 10 Pages 372-373
J. N. Miller

Abstract: The principles of the method, sample dispersion, manifold and detector systems and recent developments are outlined. (5 references).

"Potentiometric Sensors For Chemical Speciation"
Anal. Proc. 1984 Volume 21, Issue 10 Pages 361-364
Nobuhiko Ishibashi

Abstract: The selectivity coefficient of liquid cation- and of liquid anion-exchanger membrane electrodes for various ions and the selectivity coefficient of crown ether-based membrane electrodes for alkali-metal ions are discussed, and the uses of ion-selective electrodes as detectors in HPLC and in flow injection analysis and of neutral carrier-based membrane electrodes as alkali-metal ion detectors in HPLC are surveyed. (13 references).
Metals, alkali HPLC Electrode Potentiometry Sensor

"Recent Advances In Chemiluminescence And Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1985 Volume 22, Issue 12 Pages 370-371
Alan Townshend

Abstract: A review is presented of developments in instrumentation for, and applications of, flow injection analysis with chemiluminescence detection based on luminol and other chemiluminescent reactions. (19 references).
Chemiluminescence

"Selective Biochemical Reagents In Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1985 Volume 22, Issue 12 Pages 357-358
Paul J. Worsfold

Abstract: A review is presented, with 14 references, of flow injection analysis with use of enzymes as selective biochemical reagents either in solution, with a variety of manifold configurations, or in an immobilized form within the flow system. Bioluminescence reagents, e.g., Photinus-luciferin 4-monooxygenase (ATP-hydrolysing), are considered.
Bioluminescence

"The Chemiluminescence Determination Of Drugs"
Anal. Proc. 1986 Volume 23, Issue 1 Pages 25-26
Richard W. Abbott, Alan Townshend

Abstract: A manifold and a chemiluminescence detector for flow injection analysis of, e.g., morphine, are described. Morphine in a carrier stream of 0.1 M polyphosphoric acid (2.6 mL min-1) was oxidized by 0.6 mM KMnO4 to chemiluminescent pseudomorphine for detection by a sensitive photomultiplier tube. The detection limit for morphine was 0.7 pg. Sample throughput was 150 samples h-1. The coefficient of variation was 1.8% (n = 10). Structurally related opiates, e.g., normorphine and morphine N-oxide, behave in the same way.
Drugs Morphine Normorphine Morphine N-oxide Pharmaceutical Clinical analysis Chemiluminescence

"Effect Of Flow Cell On Dispersion In Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1986 Volume 23, Issue 1 Pages 23-25
Julian F. Tyson, David C. Stone

Abstract: Factors affecting physical dispersion in flow cells were investigated by using a single-line manifold, consisting of PTFE tubing (110 cm x 0.58 mm), a Rheodyne 5020 sample valve and a Gilson Minipuls 2 peristaltic pump. Tartrazine, employed as a tracer to indicate flow paths, was detected by spectrophotometry. Flow studies on four cells (of volume 0.6, 8.0, 25 and 60 µL) showed that, to minimize dispersion, cell volume should be kept as small as possible, consistent with the requirements of sensitivity and light throughput, and also the cells used should cause minimal disturbance of the carrier stream from the manifold.
Tartrazine Spectrophotometry

"Use Of Activated Alumina As A Column Packing Material For Adsorption Of Oxyanions In Flow Injection Analysis With ICP-AES Detection"
Anal. Proc. 1986 Volume 23, Issue 1 Pages 5-6
I. G. Cook, C. W. McLeod, P. J. Worsfold

Abstract: The cited technique (cf., Cox et al., Anal. Abstr., 1985, 47, 12H67) has been extended to oxy-anions. A preliminary study of the deposition, on activated alumina, and elution (with aqueous 1 M NH3 and 1 M KOH) of AsO43-, borate, CrO42-, MoO42-, PO43-, SeO42- and VO3- (with AES measurements at 193.7, 249.7, 267.7, 202.0, 213.6, 196.0 and 292.4 nm, respectively) is reported. Advantages of alumina over basic polystyrene - divinylbenzene resins as a column material for deposition and elution of oxy-anions in flow injection analysis are discussed.
Arsenate ion Borate Chromate Molybdate Phosphate Selenate Ion exchange Spectrophotometry

"Extended Range Calibrations By Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1986 Volume 23, Issue 8 Pages 304-305
Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: The calibration range in flow injection analysis is extended by measuring peak width instead of peak height. The upper working limit for flow injection determination of, e.g., NH4+ in a 40 µL sample (manifold described) is increased from 200 to 16,000 ppm. With use of a Tecator 5020 flow injection analyzer., 30 injections h-1 are possible. The coefficient of variation at 125 and 4000 ppm were 1.8 and 0.3%, respectively.
Ammonium Spectrophotometry

"Flow Injection Analysis As A Sample Handling Technique For Diode Array Spectroscopy"
Anal. Proc. 1986 Volume 23, Issue 10 Pages 365-366
Katharine Wolf and Paul J. Worsfold

Abstract: A combined flow injection analysis - HP8451A spectrophotometer system is described. With use of a reactor containing glucose oxidase immobilized on glass, online determination of glucose is possible with rectilinear response over the range 0 to 25 mM.
Glucose Spectrophotometry

"Reductive Determination Of Metal Ions By Flow Injection Analysis Using Amperometric Amalgam Detectors"
Anal. Proc. 1986 Volume 23, Issue 12 Pages 434-435
D. Eadington and J. A. W. Dalziel

Abstract: A tenfold increase in the sensitivity of a copper-amalgam detector for the cited determination (cf. Alexander and Akapongkul, Anal. Chim. Acta, 1983, 148, 103) is achieved by incorporating a 'wall-jet' working electrode with a larger surface area (28.3 mm2) and smaller cell volume (0.5 µL). Daily restoration of the sensing surface and anodic stripping after each analysis give better reproducibility and permit simultaneous detection of Cu (0 to 20 ppm) and Cd (24 ppm).
Copper Cadmium Amperometry Electrode

"Analytical Applications Of Microemulsions"
Anal. Proc. 1986 Volume 23, Issue 12 Pages 418-419
M. Hanif Memon, Paul J. Worsfold

Abstract: Flow injection procedures, with fluorimetric detection, in which the reagent is solubilized in a water - oil emulsion stabilized by Aerosol-OT, are described. Reactions between a non-aqueous sample (containing, e.g., C6 to C10 primary amines) and an aqueous reagent (e.g., phthalaldehyde - 2-mercaptoethanol) are studied quantitatively from 0 to 50 µM-amine. Triacylglycerol lipase is determined (range 0 to 5000 iu l-1) by enzymatic cleavage of 4-methylumbelliferyl heptanoate, solubilized in a micro-emulsion.
Amines Triacylglycerol lipase Fluorescence

"Indirect Assays With Immobilized Firefly Luciferase Based On Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1986 Volume 23, Issue 12 Pages 415-416
A. Nabi, P. J. Worsfold

Abstract: The cited enzyme system can be coupled with any reaction that produces or consumes ATP. The conversion of pyrophosphate(I) and adenosine 5'-phosphosulfate(II) into sulfate and ATP by sulfate adenylyltransferase and of phosphoenolpyruvate(III) and ADP into pyruvate and ATP by pyruvate kinase(IV) is described. The method is suitable for monitoring I, II, III and (IV) in serum (response time, <10 s; sample throughput, >120 h-1).
Bioluminescence

"Enzyme Electrode Systems For Glucose Determination"
Anal. Proc. 1986 Volume 23, Issue 12 Pages 446-448
G. J. Moody, G. S. Sanghera, J. D. R. Thomas

Abstract: The construction of macro- and micro-type glucose electrodes with glucose oxidase immobilized, respectively, on nylon mesh and on platinum wire is described, and the flow and response behavior of the electrodes in amperometric flow injection systems reported. The over-all performance of the macro-type was better, but the micro-type gave better response and wash times. The calibration graphs were rectilinear in the ranges 0.01 to 3 mM and 0.1 to 20 mM, respectively, for micro- and macro-types.
Glucose Amperometry Electrode

"Online Sample And Standard Manipulation For Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry"
Anal. Proc. 1986 Volume 23, Issue 12 Pages 412-415
Stephen R. Bysouth, Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: Many analytical chemistry instruments require some form of calibration. Flame atomic absorption instruments, in particular, do not give a linear response with increasing analyte concentration, owing to a variety of effects related to the nebulisation, atomisation and measurement processes. With the advent of microcomputer-linked instruments, many manufacturers have tried to overcome the problem of curved calibrations by fitting curves to the calibration data, in order to be able to interpolate between the calibration points.
Chromium Spectrophotometry

"Advances In Flow Injection Analysis With Coated Tubular Ion-selective Electrode Units"
Anal. Proc. 1987 Volume 24, Issue 11 Pages 331-333
J. F. van Staden

Abstract: A review is presented of coated tubular ion-selective electrodes for flow injection analysis, including a discussion of their construction, preparation, conditioning, implementation, response ranges and times, and applications. (24 references).
Electrode Electrode

"Flow Injection Titration Of Alkalinity In Natural Waters"
Anal. Proc. 1987 Volume 24, Issue 12 Pages 360-362
David R. Turner, Susan Knox, Michael Whitfield, Margarida Correia dos Santos

Abstract: A flow injection manifold for alkalinity measurements is described and illustrated; it consists of a mixing chamber, a capillary glass electrode detector and a reference electrode contacting the main flow stream via a free-diffusion liquid junction. A solution of 50 µM-HCl in 0.1 M NaCl is injected into a seawater carrier solution and potential readings are taken at a frequency of 5 Hz. The precision of the method is generally <1% and 30 samples h-1 can be analyzed.
Alkalinity Sea Electrode Electrode

"Principles Of Flow Injection Analysis"
Anal. Proc. 1987 Volume 24, Issue 12 Pages 362-364
Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: A review is presented, with 15 references, of the principles of flow injection titration.

"Selective Fluorogenic Flow Injection Procedures For Primary, Secondary, And Tertiary Amines In Nonaqueous Media"
Anal. Proc. 1988 Volume 25, Issue 3 Pages 60-61
I. R. C. Whiteside, P. J. Worsfold, A. Lynes, E. H. McKerrell

Abstract: Three different reagent systems were used with an apparatus that included a 1-m reaction coil operated at 45°C and an LS-2 fluorimetric detector (Perkin-Elmer) with a 7 µL flow cell. For primary amines, phthalaldehyde and 2-mercaptoethanol (both 58 mM) in ethyl acetate were used as reagents, with detection at 431 nm (excitation at 340 nm). For secondary amines, the merged stream after reaction with the same reagents was further blended with 28 mM 7-chloro-4-nitrobenzofurazan in ethyl acetate and passed through a second 1-m coil before detection at 525 nm (excitation at 480 nm). Tertiary amines were determined by reaction with 4% malonic acid in acetic anhydride and detection at 441 nm (excitation at 400 nm). Rectilinear ranges were up to 0.8, 1.5 and 2.5 mM and coefficient of variation were 1.0, 1.3 and 2.1% for hexylamine, dihexylamine and triethylamine, respectively, as test analytes.
Amines, primary Amines, secondary Amines, tertiary Fluorescence

"A Judicious Mixture Of Reaction Chemistry And Instrumentation"
Anal. Proc. 1988 Volume 25, Issue 4 Pages 111-114
Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: I chose a general title for this lecture for several reasons. Firstly. as about 13 or 14 scientific meetings in 1987 already featured my name amongst the list of speakers and there were no doubt, several members of the audience who must have felt they had attended all of them, I wished to say something different in this lecture. Secondly, as atomic spectroscopists have featured prominently as Silver Metal lecturers. I wished to avoid atomic spectroscopy. Thirdly, as it is well known in educational circles that the attention span of an audience is about 20 min, I wished to present three 20-min lectures on somewhat different topics. However, they are linked by the common underlying theme of 'time and the philosophy of analytical chemistry.'

"Flow Injection Techniques For Improving The Precision And Accuracy Of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry"
Anal. Proc. 1992 Volume 29, Issue 10 Pages 436-437
Julian F. Tyson

Abstract: Recent and future developments in flow injection techniques for use in atomic spectroscopy are discussed.
Spectrophotometry

"Having Led This Horse To Water Can We Make It Think?"
Anal. Proc. 1993 Volume 30, Issue 3 Pages 143-144
Paul MacLaurin, Paul J. Worsfold, Philip Norman, Michael Crane

Abstract: A brief review of flow injection analysis is presented, with consideration of process applications, multi-determinations (preferably with multi-detection systems), multivariate calibration and the combination of flow injection with photodiode-array detection and principal component analysis. The last-named technique, with use of a simple two-line, single-injection manifold and measurement of the visible spectrum at the max. transient response, was tested for the simultaneous determination of Cl and orthophosphate in cooling water by means of the o-tolidine and molybdophosphoric acid reactions. Partial-least-squares regression modeling of the data with cross-validation produced a model in which two factors accounted for 99% of the concentration. variance. (27 references).
Chlorine Water

"Analysis Of Trace Metals In Seawater By Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry And Related Techniques"
Anal. Proc. 1993 Volume 30, Issue 3 Pages 159-161
Martin J. Bloxham, Steve J. Hill, Paul J. Worsfold

Abstract: Methods of matrix interference suppression or removal in such analyzes are reviewed, with particular reference to coupled online pre-concentration. and matrix removal methods based on flow injection or LC. The application of such techniques in conjunction with AAS, ICP-AES and ICP-MS detection is also discussed, as are such approaches to matrix suppression as multivariate calibration. (33 references).
Metals, trace Sea Mass spectrometry

"Flow Injection Analysis. Its Principles And Uses."
A and R 1979 Volume 17, Issue 1 Pages 1-9
Kina, K.;Ishibashi, N.

Abstract: A review with 24 refs.

"A New Version Of An In-situ Sampling System For Bioprocess Analysis"
Acta Biotechnol. 1996 Volume 16, Issue 2-3 Pages 185-192
J.-M. Hilmer, Th. Scheper

Abstract: In this article, attention is focused on an online sampling device for bioreactors and its characterization regarding sterility and response time. The integration of this device into analytical systems for biotechnology (FIA with biosensors) resulted in online analysis systems for bioprocess control. The new ESIP version of an in situ sampling system for bioprocess analysis produced by the EPPENDORF-NETHELER-HINZ GmbH, Germany, had a short response time of 8 min (99%), which was determined by means of conductivity measurement after an increase of the medium conductivity due to the gradual addition of KCl. Effectiveness and reliability of the module were tested by bubble point measurement resulting in a bubble point pressure of 2.1 bars. The sampling probe was tested successfully for use in a broad variety of microorganisms and cultivations.
Microbial activity Glucose Maltose Sucrose Fermentation broth Sensor Biotechnology

"Flow Injection Analysis Using Chemiluminescent Reactions"
Acta Cient. Venez. 1980 Volume 31, Issue 2 Pages 221-221
Burguera, J.L.;Burguera, M.;Millan, F.;Townshend, A.

Abstract: NA
Cobalt Copper Iron Bioluminescence Chemiluminescence

"New Applications Of Flow Injection Analysis In Analytical Chemistry"
Acta Cient. Venez. 1982 Volume 33, Issue 4 Pages 375-375
Burguera, J.L.;Burguera, M.

Abstract: NA
Iodine Terbium Bioluminescence Chemiluminescence

"The Principles, Applications And Trends Of Flow Injection Analysis For Monitoring Chemiluminescence Reactions"
Acta Cient. Venez. 1983 Volume 34, Issue 1 Pages 79-83
Burguera, J.L.;Burguera, M.

Abstract: A review with 39 references discussing the basic principles of flow injection analysis for chemiluminescence measurements. To illustrate the trends toward future developments, the most recent applications of flow injection analysis for monitoring chemiluminescence reactions are described. (SFS)
Chemiluminescence

"HPLC And FIA Coupled To Fast-scan Electrochemical Detection Methods"
Acta Pharm. Jugosl. 1990 Volume 40, Issue 1-2 Pages 171-177
Nagels, L.J.

Abstract: A review is presented, with 22 references. State-of-the-art fast-scan electrochemical detection is described and its potential in pharmaceutical analysis.
Pharmaceutical HPLC Electrochemical analysis

"Recent Developments In Flow Injection Atomic Spectroscopy"
Adv. At. Spectrosc. 1998 Volume 4, Issue 1 Pages 177-212
M.D. Luque de Castro, L. G&aacute;miz-Gracia

Abstract: A review, with many refs., is given on the main types of flow injection atomic spectroscopy couplings, namely: flow injection atomic absorption spectrometry, which is the most widely used type of atomic spectroscopic assembly; flow injection flame emission spectroscopy; flow injection atomic fluorescence spectroscopy; and flow injection inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy. Special emphasis is placed on new instrument devices, coupling with other techniques and the use of flow injection to improve existing atomic methods.
Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Fluorescence Spectrophotometry

"Immunochemically Based Assays For Process Control"
Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol. 1992 Volume 46, Issue 1 Pages 81-102
Mattiasson B, Hakanson H.

Abstract: Immunoanalysis for process control is reviewed. The development of non-equilibrium immunoassays from a manually operated flow injection system to a completely computerized system for sample analysis as well as calibration and data evaluation is discussed. Several other approaches in using immunochemistry in biosensors for process control are discussed. The fact that reuse of antibodies raises specific demands on their properties is discussed. Even if the area is young, much progress has been achieved and one can foresee an interesting future development of the area.
Immunoassay Sensor Biotechnology

"High Speed, On-stream Acid-base Titration Utilizing Flow Injection Analysis"
Adv. Instrum. 1984 Volume 39, Issue 1 Pages 279-285
NA (Karl D. Schick)

Abstract: Single point titration by flow injection analysis (FIA) allows rapid, on-stream determination of acids and bases. A small volume of acid or base is injected into a linear buffer, the resulting local pH change in the flowing buffer stream is linearly related to the concentration. of the injected acid or base. Process applications dealing with the determination of H2SO4 (1-10%), caustic (0.1-10%) and NH3 (1-6%) are discussed. A simple, on-stream sample clean-up procedure and device is also described. (SFS)
Ammonia pH Potentiometry Spectrophotometry

"Utilization Of Flow Injection Analysis In Agrochemical Laboratories"
Agrochemia 1987 Volume 27, Issue 9 Pages 273-276
Karlicek, R.;Dolejsova, J.

Abstract: NA
Agricultural Environmental

"Use Of Segmented Micro-continuous-flow Analysis And FIA In Water Analysis"
Am. Environ. Lab. 1989 Volume 1, Issue 2 Pages 60-63
Straka, M.R.

Abstract: The complementary nature of the methodologies of macrosegmented and microsegmented continuous-flow and nonsegmented FIA is discussed. The relative advantages and disadvantages are highlighted and general guidelines for selection of one technique over another are suggested.
Environmental Water

"Potential Of Flow Injection Methodology For Beverage Analysis"
Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 1992 Volume 43, Issue 1 Pages 93-100
M. D. Luque De Castro and J. A. Garc&iacute;a-Mesa

Abstract: A literature review of the use of flow injection analysis for the analysis of beverages (particularly wines) is presented. The different possibilities of carrying out individual and multiple determinations (whether simultaneous or sequential) with or without the aid of continuous on- line separation are critically discussed.
Wine Beverage

"Rapid Sample Pretreatment And Analysis Using Automated FIA"
Am. Lab. 1982 Volume 14, Issue 1 Pages 56-68
Ranger, C.B.

Abstract: A review with 15 references. The use of flow injection analysis (FIA) for complex sample treatment functions, such as dilution, filtration, dialysis, distillation, extraction, and for development of reactions to determine a wide range of analytes in diverse sample matrixes is discussed. (SFS)

"Automation Of Wet Chemical Procedures Using FIA"
Am. Lab. 1983 Volume 15, Issue 2 Pages 73-77
Karlberg, BI

Abstract: The Technique of flow injection analysis (FIA) has won rapid acceptance in many laboratories due to its general applicability. The concept of FIA was introduced in its first primitive form in 1974 by Ruzicka and Hansen at the Technical University of Denmark. Their initial experiments were carried out using an injection syringe, a flexible manifold (constructed by using children's LEGO toys), and a photometer equipped with a flow cell. The experiments carried out with this simple apparatus were very promising and the technique has developed very rapidly since then. More than 250 publications, including almost 100 that appeared during 1981, have been published in international journals. FIA has thus far been used mostly for automation of wet chemistry methods, such as the determination of ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, and chloride. However, more sophisticated analytical procedures such as titrations, solvent extraction, and kinetic measurements have also been performed using !he FIA principle.

"Flow Injection Analysis As A Tool For Metal Speciation"
Am. Lab. 1984 Volume 16, Issue 7 Pages 17-18
Pacey, G.E.;Bubnis, B.P.

Abstract: The usefulness of flow injection analysis in automated systems (with pump programming and 'packed-bed' reaction coils) is described for the rapid processing of large numbers of samples. The importance of metal speciation in environmental and toxicological studies is emphasized and, as an example, a flow injection method for determination of Fe(II) and Fe(III) with use of 1,10-phenanthroline and spectrophotometry at 512 nm is described; it was suitable for application in the range 5 to 30 ppm of each species.
Iron(2+) Iron(III) Environmental Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry

"An Automated Ion Analyzer"
Am. Lab. 1985 Volume 17, Issue 2 Pages 92-97
Ranger, C.B.

Abstract: An automated system is described that incorporates flow-injection anal. and ion chromatography, allowing both techniques to be performed either sequentially or simultaneously using a single instrument. Several examples, including anion determination in acid rain sample, Fe determination in presence of Pu, Ni and Zn determination in phosphate bath, are given to illustrate the performance of the system. Several levels of sample preparation can be incorporated in-line to provide complete automation. (SFS)
Anions Iron Rain Industrial

"Industrial Applications Of Flow Injection Analysis"
Am. Lab. 1986 Volume 18, Issue 3 Pages 154-157
Whitaker, M.J.

Abstract: Some of the advantages and uses of flow-injection analysis in industry are reviewed with three references. (SFS)
Industrial

"Recent Developments In Electrochemical Detection For Flow Injection Analysis"
Am. Lab. 1987 Volume 19, Issue 1 Pages 38-48
Tougas, T.P.

Abstract: A review with 64 references. (SFS)
Electrochemical analysis

"USEPA Regulation Of FIA Methods For NPDES And NIPDWR Monitoring Of Waters And Wastes"
Am. Lab. 1988 Volume 20, Issue 9 Pages 42-49
Ranger, C.B.

Abstract: A review with no references on EPA-approved flow injection analysis methods for the analysis of water and wastewater in compliance with the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System and the National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations.
Water Water Waste Waste

"Advances In Flow Injection Analysis"
Am. Lab. 1989 Volume 21, Issue 1 Pages 63-67
Sjodin, A.;Sundqvist, U.

Abstract: A review with 19 references. (SFS)

"Expanding ICP-MS Capabilities Using Flow Injection"
Am. Lab. 1992 Volume 24, Issue 3 Pages 74-82
Denoyer, E.R.;Stroh, A.

Abstract: A review with 28 references. Flow injection (FI), FI-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) combination, benefits of FI for ICP-MS, and online sample handling are discussed.
Spectrophotometry Mass spectrometry Sample preparation

"Flow Injection Analysis: Its Possibilities And Applications In Food Analysis"
An. Bromatol. 1986 Volume 37, Issue 1 Pages 197-205
Luque De Castro, M.D.

Abstract: Flow injection analysis and its applications to food analysis are reviewed. (59 references).
Food

"Flow Injection: Master Or Slave?"
Anal. Eur. 1995 Volume 22, Issue 1 Pages 24-25
Luque De Castro, M.D.

Abstract: The high sample throughput of FIA makes it suitable for routine analysis as the measurements can be made at any time and are not restricted to kinetic considerations. This should make FIA ideal for clinical and environmental analysis although in practice it is not widely used in clinical analysis due to the development of dedicated analyzer.s. However, its portability, cost-effectiveness, easy manipulation, automation and its ability to be tailored to a particular problem combine to make FIA a powerful environmental tool. The wide range of FIA systems available together with its possible modifications and online coupling are discussed. The role of FIA in environmental analysis and its restrictions are briefly outlined.
Clinical analysis

"Recent Advances In Analytical Spectrometry"
Anal. Spectrosc. Libr. 1987 Volume 2, Issue 1 Pages 21-37
A. Townshend

Abstract: This overview covers some recent developments in UV-visible atomic and mol. spectrometry. In atomic spectrometry these include developments in background correction techniques for furnace atomic absorption spectrometry, methods of multielement anal. based on atomic emission from the inductively coupled plasma and on atomic absorption spectrometry. The use of linear diode array detectors in these three areas is considered. In mol. spectrometry, the rapid collection of spectra from hydrogen-based flames with use of a vidicon detector is described, and the value of 3-dimensional, contour and variable angle scanning of spectrofluorometric spectra stressed, as well as the advantages of derivative spectra. The use of a diode array spectrophotometer in conjunction with flow-injection anal. is outlined, and applications of flow injection in conjunction with chemiluminescence measurements are given. Combinations of some of these detection systems with chromatography are briefly mentioned. 86 Refs.
Spectrophotometry Fluorescence Chemiluminescence Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry

"Flow Injection Environmental Analysis. A Review"
Analusis 1985 Volume 13, Issue 4 Pages 147-159
L&Aacute;ZARO BOZA F. ; LUQUE DE CASTRO D. ; VALC&Aacute;REL CASES M.

Abstract: A review is presented, with 134 references. The basic flow injection analysis components and the various modes of flow injection analysis are described. Methods of determination of inorganic ions in various water samples are tabulated, and determination of inorganic air pollutants is briefly discussed.
Environmental

"Diode-array Detectors In Hydrodynamic Analytical Systems"
Analusis 1986 Volume 14, Issue 8 Pages 378-388
Lazaro, F.;Rios, A.;Luque De Castro, M.D.;Valcarcel, M.

Abstract: In this review, a brief description of the mode of action of such detectors is followed by a discussion of their applications in stopped-flow techniques, HPLC and flow injection analysis. (121 references).
HPLC Spectrophotometry

"Gas Diffusion/flow Injection Analysis: Applications And Trends"
Analusis 1988 Volume 16, Issue 4 Pages 216-220
Lazaro, F.;Luque De Castro, M.D.

Abstract: A review is presented, with 28 references, of the principles and features of the cited techniques. The various applications and analytical parameters are tabulated.

"The Use Of Emulsions In Atomic Spectrometry And Flow Injection Analysis: Fundamentals And New Applications"
Analusis 1991 Volume 19, Issue 6 Pages M52-M56
DE LA GUARDIA M. ; SALVADOR A.

Abstract: A review is presented, with 32 references, of emulsification sample preparation techniques for use in the direct determination of metals in liposoluble samples by the cited methods.
Metals Spectrophotometry

"Exchange Methods For The Indirect Photometric Determination Of Anions And Organic Molecules"
Analusis 1992 Volume 20, Issue 8 Pages 437-450
VERCHERE J. F. ; DONA A. M.

Abstract: A review is presented, with 181 references, of indirect methods for determination of anions and organic molecules, with particular references to ion- or ligand-exchange reactions and photometry. Indirect detection modes for chromatographic techniques or flow injection analysis are reviewed up to October 1991.
Anions Organic compounds Spectrophotometry

"Gas Chromatography With Element Selective Detection In Speciation Analysis. Status And Future Prospects"
Analusis 1994 Volume 22, Issue 2 Pages 37-48
&#321;OBINSKI R.

Abstract: A review is presented which discusses species separation by GC on columns of DB-1, HP-1 or RSL-150) followed by element-selective detection. Optical (AAS, AES, AFS) and MS detection methods are compared. Sample preparation, automation and flow injection processing are described and some practical applications are given. (67 references).
Trace elements NIST 1643 GC Mass spectrometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry

"Fluorimetric Determination Of Nitrate And Nitrite"
Analusis 1995 Volume 23, Issue 7 Pages 312-319
ML Viriot, B Mahieuxe, MC Carre, JC Andre

Abstract: Fluorimetric determination of nitrate and nitrite in the last 20 years is reviewed. First, the necessity of nitrate and nitrite analysis is recalled. Second, the fluorimetric available methods are described, especially with normalization of the units for the reported data (mg/l and M (mol/l)); the major results are summarized in two tables (I and II) and in order to allow a comparison, the methods are listed according to their detection limit (tables III and IV), which is also related to the fluorescence emission wavelength through two graphs (figs 1 and 2). Third, in a critical discussion, the reported methods are briefly evaluated(chronological classification; tables V and VI). Fluorescence use as chromatographic detection for nitrate and nitrite is only mentioned. (49 references)
Nitrate Nitrite Environmental LC Fluorescence

"Recent Chromatographic And Electrophoretic Methods For Phosphates Analysis"
Analusis 1998 Volume 26, Issue 2 Pages 53-60
R. Rosset, F. Hui, J. Xie, H. Kolodziejczyk and B. Bayri

Abstract: Following a classification of phosphates according to modern rules of nomenclature, the separation of complex mixtures of linear and cyclic condensed phosphates is described. Three methods are evaluated: ion exchange liquid chromatography with chloride concentration gradient, ion chromatography associated with conductometric detection which allows rapid separations (~ 30 minutes), capillary electrophoresis with indirect absorptiometric detection, this technique being, for the moment, restricted to the first terms of phosphates (ortho, di and triphosphate).
Phosphate HPIC Electrophoresis Conductometry

"Flow-injection Analysis (FIA)"
Angew. Chem. 1991 Volume 103, Issue 4 Pages A107-A112
U. Bilitewski, T. Ding, R.D. Schmid*

Abstract: A review is presented, with 21 references.

"Some Aspects Of Design, Performance And Applications Of Electrochemical Detectors In HPLC And Flow Injection Analysis"
Ann. Chim. 1986 Volume 76, Issue 9-10 Pages 315-332
Stulik, K.;Pacakova, V.

Abstract: The authors review their experience with voltammetric and polarographic detectors in respect of selection of the working-electrode material, design of the cell, selection of operating parameters, measuring techniques and applications. (34 references).
HPLC Polarography Voltammetry Electrode

"Online FIA Atomic Spectrometry For The Analysis Of Metal Traces"
Ann. Chim. 1995 Volume 85, Issue 7-8 Pages 443-454
MENTASTI E

Abstract: A review is presented, with 28 references. It is concluded that the practical blank-limited detection limit obtainable by flow injection pre-concentration online with atomic spectrometry has nearly been reached, and that the only further possibility (apart from the impractical use of a larger sample volume) is the development of flow injection ICP-MS. Sensitivity of the pre-concentration to the chemical state of the metal indicates the possibility of using flow injection atomic spectrometry for speciation. Online flow injection analysis (online FIA) for the determination of metal traces by atomic spectrometry is reviewed and discussed with reference to environmental applications. The FIA manifold comprises a microcolumn packed with XAD-2 resin which retains the analytes in form of metal complexes. Successive elution enables the achievement of an enrichment step with which very low detection limits can be reached. (28 references)
Cadmium Copper Iron Manganese Nickel Zinc Sea Mass spectrometry Sample preparation

"Application Of Flow Injection Analysis In Clinical Biochemistry"
Biochem. Clin. Bohemoslov. 1986 Volume 15, Issue 3 Pages 201-208
Karl&iacute;&#269;ek, Rolf; Pol&aacute;&#353;ek, Miroslav

Abstract: NA
Clinical analysis

"Apparatus And Techniques In Flow Injection Analysis"
Biochem. Clin. Bohemoslov. 1987 Volume 16, Issue 5 Pages 417-426
Karl&iacute;&#269;ek, K.; Pol&aacute;&#353;ek, M.

Abstract: NA
Clinical analysis

"Chemiluminescence Detection In Flowing Streams"
Biomed. Chromatogr. 1997 Volume 11, Issue 2 Pages 85-86
Leonidas P. Palilis, Antony C. Calokerinos, Willy R. G. Baeyens, Yining Zhao, Kazuhiro Imai

Abstract: The use of CL detection in a flowing stream situation requires a method to deliver and mix the CL reagent(s) with the analyte stream or column effluent. In addition, a suitable observation flow cell that allows detection of the CL emission at an appropriate time after the initiation of the reaction (when the analyte stream and the CL reagents mix) is needed.
Chemiluminescence

"Flow Injection Analysis In Bioprocess Control"
Bioprocess. Technol. 1990 Volume 6, Issue 1 Pages 221-241
Reed AL

Abstract: A review with 17 references. Topics include: principles of operation; practical applications in bioprocesses; and connecting flow injection analysis to a process.
Fermentation broth

"Immunosensors: Electrochemical Sensing And Other Engineering Approaches"
Biosens. Bioelectron. 1998 Volume 13, Issue 1 Pages 113-131
Andrey L. Ghindilis*, Plamen Atanasov*, Michael Wilkins

Abstract: This article overviews the engineering approaches and the recent trends in the development of alternative immunoassay systems. A brief description of the main principles and limitations of conventional immunoassay is given. Immunosensing approaches overcoming these limitations are discussed. Alternatives to traditional immunoassay systems are discussed in terms of the enhancement of immunointeraction processes and in terms of the various detection principles. Applications of flow injection techniques to the development of immunosensing systems are presented. Immunosensors are categorized based on the detection principle employed, as immunoelectrodes (electrochemical immunosensors), piezoelectric immunosensors, or as sensors based on optical detection of the immunointeraction. The discussion focuses on electrochemical immunosensors. In conclusion, the engineering issues involved in immunosensor development are outlined and trends towards practical applications are discussed.
Immunoassay

"Natural Silk Fibroin As A Support For Enzyme Immobilization"
Biotechnol. Adv. 1998 Volume 16, Issue 5-6 Pages 961-971
Yu-Qing Zhang

Abstract: A review with 40 references. Silk fibroin derived from Bombyx mori cocoon is being developed and utilized for purposes besides traditional textile material. Fibroin can be easily made up into various forms, several of which can serve as enzyme-immobilized supports. There are numerous reports on immobilized enzymes using these forms of silk fibroin as supports in which the enzyme-immobilized fibroin membranes were characterized in detail by means of spectrophotometry, IR spectra, NMR, ESR. Enzyme-immobilized fibroin membranes have been successfully used in several biosensors for the determinations of glucose, hydrogen peroxide and uric acid in which glucose and urate biosensors in a flow injection system were able rapidly to analyze various biosamples including human whole blood or serum.
Glucose Hydrogen peroxide Uric acid Serum Human Whole Human Sensor

"Semi-online Analysis For Fast And Precise Monitoring Of Bioreaction Processes"
Biotechnol. Bioeng. 1996 Volume 52, Issue 2 Pages 237-247
L. H. Christensen *, J. Marcher, U. Schulze, M. Carlsen, R. W. Min, J. Nielsen, J. Villadsen

Abstract: Monitoring of substrates and products during fermentation processes can be achieved either by online, in situ sensors or by semi-online analysis consisting of an automatic sampling step followed by an ex situ analysis of the retrieved sample. The potential risk of introducing time delays and signal bias during sampling makes it necessary to distinguish between real-time, online, in situ methods and semi-online analysis. In addition, semi-online analyzers are often mechanically complex-a circumstance which has to be given special attention during their industrial use on a routine basis. This review on semi-online analysis will focus both on the dynamics and precision of aseptic sampling devices and on the performance of flow injection analysis (FIA) and sequential injection analysis (SIA), especially with regard to their robustness when used in industry.
Fermentation broth

"Flow Injection Analysis"
Bol. Soc. Port. Quim. 1993 Volume 51, Issue 1 Pages 26-30
Camoes, M.;Filomena, G.F.C.

Abstract: A Analise de lnjec?ao em Fluxo (FIA) consiste na injec?ao repetida de urn pequeno volume de amostra num liquido transportador que, em condi?oes hidrodinamicamente controladas, se desloca de forma continua e nao segmentada ate urn detector que acusara urn sinal tendencialmente gaussiano. Durante o percurso, outros liquidos lransportadores, reactivos ou nao, podem eventualmente juntar-se ao primeiro, podendo a amostra ser submetida a loda uma gama de processos lisico-quimicos. As opera?oes postas em pratica reflectem-se na maior ou menor dispersao da amostra no(s) liquido(s) transportador(es). 0 valor do coeficiente de dispersao definido em rela?ao ao estado estacionario, depende das caracterislicas da montagem experimental e constitui urn criterio de classifica?ao para a tecnica a ter em conta para as diferentes aplicaoes. A tecnica de FIA, pela sua simplicidade, elegancia, rapidez, economia de reagentes, possibilidade de automatiza?ao e maior conteudo de informa?ao, encontrou rapido desenvolvimento e vasta aplica?ao laboratorial.

"Factors Influencing The Flow Injection Analysis"
Bull. Inst. Chem. 1987 Volume 34, Issue 1 Pages 1-7
Hung, T.C.;Chuang, A.;Meng, P.J.

Abstract: The results for determinations of Cl-, NH4+, NO2-, NO3-, total N and total P in water are presented. The effects of flow rate, coil length, sample volume and temperature on accuracy were studied.
Ammonium Chloride Nitrate Nitrite Nitrogen, total Phosphorus Environmental

"Utilization Of The Permeation Of Gases Through A Membrane In Analytical Chemistry"
Bunseki 1992 Volume 1992, Issue 2 Pages 103-109
Nakata, R.

Abstract: A review is presented, with 22 references, with discussion of the use of gas permeation in electrochemical sensors, flow injection analysis, MS and other techniques.

"Spectrophotometric Determination Of Inorganic Materials. Highly Sensitive Chromogenic Reagents And New Detection Systems"
Bunseki 1990 Volume 1990, Issue 4 Pages 283-290
Yotsuyanagi, T.;Hoshino, H.;Igarashi, S.

Abstract: A review is presented, with 94 references, including flow injection analysis and HPLC.
HPLC Spectrophotometry

"Application Of Solid-phase Separation To Sensitivity Enhancement And Flow Injection Methods"
Bunseki 1992 Volume 1992, Issue 5 Pages 385-388
Motomizu, S.

Abstract: A review is presented, with 31 references. The principles of the technique are discussed.
Sample preparation

"Titration In Non-aqueous Solvents"
Bunseki 1992 Volume 1992, Issue 5 Pages 366-371
Izutsu, K.;Nakamura, T.

Abstract: A review is presented, with 70 references, on acid - base titrations, oxidation - reduction titrations, precipitation titrations and complexometric titrations in non-aqueous solvents and flow injection non-aqueous solvent titration.

"Simultaneous Determination Of Components In Food By FIA Including Parallel Configuration Of Enzyme Columns"
Bunseki 1990 Volume 1990, Issue 5 Pages 379-383
Matsumoto, K.

Abstract: A review is presented, with 8 references, of the use of FIA and immobilized-enzyme columns in the determi