University of North Florida
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Stuart Chalk, Ph.D.
Department of Chemistry
University of North Florida
Phone: 1-904-620-1938
Fax: 1-904-620-3535
Email: schalk@unf.edu
Website: @unf

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Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry

  • Publisher: Taylor and Francis
  • FAD Code: CRAC
  • CODEN: CCACBB
  • ISSN: 1040-8347
  • Abbreviation: Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem.
  • DOI Prefix: 10.1080/1040834
  • Language: English
  • Comments: Fulltext from 1988 V20

Citations 35

"Review Of Univariate Standard Addition Calibration Procedures In Flow Analysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2006 Volume 36, Issue 1 Pages 27-40
Pawelstrok Kosacutecielniak; Joanna Kozak

Abstract: The calibration procedures related to the standard addition method and used in flow analysis are critically reviewed. All examples met in the literature are considered with respect to their facilities for overcoming the interferences. It is disclosed that the flow techniques give a chance to add the standard(s) to a sample by different manners allowing the analytical result to be calculated by either interpolative or extrapolative way. However, from among various calibration procedures those of extrapolative character are distinguished as they are exclusively able to compensate the multiplicative interference effect in wide range of the interferent(s) concentration. It is also shown how the flow standard addition approaches can be employed to solve different analytical problems and - on the other hand - why some of them reveal limited usefulness for calibration purposes. The particular groups of calibration procedures are compared with each other and discussed in terms of their analytical performance. Copyright © Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.

"Flow Injection Techniques In Aquatic Environmental Analysis: Recent Applications And Technological Advances"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2005 Volume 35, Issue 3 Pages 237-246
Weihong Xu, Richard C. Sandford, Paul J. Worsfold, Alexandra Carlton, Grady Hanrahan

Abstract: This article critically examines the application of flow injection (FI) technology in aquatic environmental analysis. A survey of the important advances in FI technology in the past 5 years (2000-2004) is presented along with critical technological design factors and development issues including automation, pre-concentration, speciation, and advanced detection methodologies. Modern environmental applications are also discussed and future perspectives on the directions of FI technology in relation to aquatic environmental analysis are considered.

"Review And Classification Of Univariate Interpolative Calibration Procedures In Flow Analysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2004 Volume 34, Issue 1 Pages 25-37
Pawel Koscielniak; Joanna Kozak

Abstract: A novel classification system introducing three main categories of the calibration methods - interpolative, extrapolative, and indicative - is suggested once more to be used in analytical chemistry. Then the univariate interpolative calibration procedures developed in the flow analysis are reviewed. In contrast to other similar reports, the present article does not present them with respect to instrumental aspects but as to how the measurement data recorded are interpreted and transformed into the analytical results. On such a basis, five groups of the calibration approaches have been specified. Finally, the particular groups of methods are compared with each other and discussed in terms of their analytical performance.

"Determination Of Toxic Substances Based On Enzyme Inhibition. Part II. Electrochemical Biosensors For The Determination Of Pesticides Using Flow Systems"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2003 Volume 33, Issue 2 Pages 127-143
Sílvia Solé, Arben Merkoçi and Salvador Alegret

Abstract: Enzyme inhibition coupled to flow injection systems set-ups are a powerful tool for the monitoring of environmental toxics. The present review examines the latest contributions to this field where electrochemical detection is used. The advantages and limitations of the FIA technique in the context of enzyme inhibition analytical procedures are discussed. The present review is organized in accordance to the enzyme (cholinesterases, tyrosinases, or alkaline phosphatase) used in the measurement.
Enzymes Environmental Sensor Review

"Flow Injection Methods Of Analysis For Waters. II. Organic Pollutants"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2003 Volume 33, Issue 1 Pages 57-68
Andrei F. Dunec, Mihaela Cheregi, Jose Martinez Calatayud, Jose Vicente Garcia Mateo and Hassan Y. Aboul Enein

Abstract: A comprehensive, critical and updated review for the applications of flow-injection analysis (FIA) techniques for the analysis of organic pollutants in several types of water samples, except marine waters, is presented. The methods of indirect determination of organic pollutants in water by using flow injection coupled with atomic absorption spectroscopy are also discussed.
Environmental Spectrophotometry Review

"On-Line Coupling Of Solid Phase Extraction Sample Processing With High-Performance Liquid Chromatography"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2002 Volume 32, Issue 3 Pages 227-243
Krystyna Pyrzynska and Ewa Pobozy

Abstract: UFL

"Chemical Sensors And Biosensors Based On Prussian Blues"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2002 Volume 32, Issue 1 Pages 79-96
Robert Koncki

Abstract: This article is a review of the literature devoted to analytical sensors and biosensors based on Prussian blue and its analogues. Electrochemical and optical devices are characterized. Several sensing schemes and their practical analytical applications are reported. Trends and perspectives for development of Prussian blues-based (bio)sensors are indicated. The review contains 155 references.

"Carbon Paste Electrodes In Modern Electroanalysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2001 Volume 31, Issue 4 Pages 311-345
Ivan Švancara, Karel Vytřas, Jiří Barek, Jiří Zima

Abstract: Recent trends and advances in the electrochemistry with both unmodified and modified carbon paste electrodes are reviewed (247 refs.). Present day knowledge of their basic physico-chemical properties and characteristics is surveyed, including some specifics important in electrochemical measurements. Special attention is paid to the possibilities of carbon paste-based electrodes in electrochemical investigations and in modem electroanalysis of inorganic ions or molecules, organic substances, biologically important compounds, and pharmaceuticals.
Electrode Amperometry Voltammetry Review

"Flow Injection Methods Of Analysis For Waters. I. Inorganic Species"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2001 Volume 31, Issue 3 Pages 191-222
Andrei. F. Danet, Mihaela Cheregi, Jose Martinez Calatayud, Jose Vicente Garcia Mateo and Hassan Y. Aboul Enein

Abstract: A comprehensive, critical, and an updated review of the applications of flow-injection analysis (FIA) techniques for the analysis of inorganic cations and anions in several types of water samples except marine waters is presented. The pre-concentration of metals in water samples and automaton of FIA systems for monitoring water quality are also discussed. The review is documented with 280 references.
Environmental Automation Preconcentration Review

"Chemiluminescence Flow Injection Immunoassays"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2001 Volume 31, Issue 3 Pages 167-174
Gerald Gübitz, Martin G. Schmid, Hossein Silviaeh and Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein

Abstract: The state of art in chemiluminescence flow injection immunoassays is reviewed. Different approaches and manifolds are described. Advantages of chemiluminescence flow injection immunoassays, which are discussed in detail, are speed, selectivity, and sensitivity. The major benefit of such systems is the simple and economical set up, which is easily adapted to automation.
Chemiluminescence Immunoassay Review

"Recent Developments And Applications Of Chemiluminescence Sensors"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2000 Volume 30, Issue 4 Pages 271-289
Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein, Raluca-Ioana Stefan, Jacobus F. van Staden, Xinrong R. Zhang, Ana M. Garcia-Campana and Willy R. G. Baeyens

Abstract: Chemiluminescence sensors are important tools in analytical chemistry due to their high sensitivity selectivity. This review presents the instrumentation involved in their design, including light detection and flow injection analysis system used. Various applications for the analysis of inorganic and organic compounds from gaseous samples and solutions indicate that these sensors are used with good reproducibility and selectivity of the analytes at low concentration level.
Chemiluminescence Sensor Sensor Sensor Review

"Chemiluminescence-based (bio)sensors - An Overview"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1999 Volume 29, Issue 4 Pages 323-331
Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein, Raluca-Ioana Stefan and Jacobus F. van Staden

Abstract: This review discusses the advances in the design of chemiluminescence-based sensors and biosensors with particular emphasis on their classification. Several up-to-date applications are presented.
Environmental Chemiluminescence Sensor Review Immobilized reagent

"Functionalized Cellulose Sorbents For Preconcentration Of Trace Metals In Environmental Analysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1999 Volume 29, Issue 4 Pages 313-321
Krystyna Pyrzyñska and Marek Trojanowicz

Abstract: Regardless the progress in detectability of various instrumentation for trace metal determination, the pre-concentration steps are very often needed for the analysis of environmental samples. Among the different techniques that can be used for this purpose, solid-phase extraction using various sorbents has been developed very intensively in recent years. Besides pre-concentration, it can also be used for matrix removal necessary in some procedures or for the speciation of trace elements. This review is based on 42 literature references and shows favorable properties of cellulose sorbents for this purpose. Depending on the functional groups attached, the sorbent can be directly used for sorption of target analytes or can be loaded with ligands specifically binding certain species. Applications are reviewed for conventional batch procedures, flow injection sample processing, and speciation of certain trace elements.
Metals, trace Environmental Spectrophotometry Mass spectrometry Spectrophotometry Preconcentration Cellex Review

"The Proper Place Of Analytical Chemistry In Environmental Management"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1999 Volume 29, Issue 2 Pages 155-162
Jirí Janata

Abstract: Obtaining new information through characterizaton (chemical analysis) has its costs associated with it. These costs must be justified. It is argued that the value of any analysis, new chemical sensor, or a new analytical procedure for environmental management task is ultimately determined by its rational use. A formal procedure for justification of chemical characterization is outlined.
Environmental Waste

"Electrochemical Sensor Arrays"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1999 Volume 29, Issue 2 Pages 133-153
Raluca-Ioana Stefan, Jacobus F. Van Staden and Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein

Abstract: The importance of sensor arrays in environmental, food and clinical analysis is discussed. The possible designs of sensor arrays is shown. The most reliable mathematical models for data processing are presented. The importance of different types of electrochemical sensor arrays in analytical chemistry as well as their performances are shown.
Environmental Food Biological Sensor Electrochemical analysis Chemometrics Non-immobilized enzyme Review

"Nonconventional Samplers In Capillary Electrophoresis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1999 Volume 29, Issue 1 Pages 29-68
Ruth Kuldvee and Mihkel Kaljurand

Abstract: Developments in nonconventional sample introduction in capillary electrophoresis have focused on the possibility of forcing the sample stream to pass the separation capillary inlet. The advantages of such input devices are the absence of a voltage rise/drop time during sampling, ease of operation because no vial manipulations are involved, and ease of automation and computerization. However, besides these the main advantage of such input devices seems to be the fact that they facilitate easy, multiple input from a single sample vial. This opens the possibility of monitoring the concentration changes taking part in inside the vessel -an important task for -analytical biotechnology. This article describes some possible designs of CE nonconventional samplers and discusses applications of such samplers in sample preparation, in coupling CE with flow injection analysis (FIA) and HPLC, in multiple input experiments (with or without stacking) for reduction of detection limits and for monitoring of reaction kinetics.
Electrophoresis Interface

"Coupling Continuous Sample Treatment Systems To Capillary Electrophoresis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1998 Volume 28, Issue 1 Pages 63-81
Miguel Válcarcel, Angel Ríos, Lourdes Arce

Abstract: The state of the art and prospects for the combined use of continuous sample treatment systems and custom-made and commercially available capillary electrophoresis equipment is presented and discussed. Sample treatment in this separation technique is of great practical relevance by virtue of its inherent shortcomings, which include low sensitivity, small sample volumes, and a marked influence of matrix components. The main technical types of coupling (in-line, on-line, and mixed) are dealt with systematically and compared to manually implemented approaches in order to derive practical conclusions with a view to developing new technical applications and facilitate use by routine laboratories.
Proteins Urine Electrophoresis Interface Automation

"Direct Processing And Analysis Of Solid And Other Complex Samples With Automatic Flow Injection Systems"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1996 Volume 26, Issue 4 Pages 239-260
Zheng-Liang Zhi; Angel Rios; Miguel Valcarcel

Abstract: The use of a suitable sampling or sample-processing unit connected to a flow injection system can significantly expand the scope of application of the flow injection technique by enabling the direct introduction and treatment of solid and other complex samples in a single automated system. In recent years various sample pretreatment techniques, including electrolytic dissolution, on-line leaching, continuous microwave digestion, on-line sterilizable membrane dialysis/filtration, pervaporation, dynamic gas-extraction, and flow-reversal liquid-liquid extraction, among others, have proven useful for solving a variety of analytical problems in conjunction with flow injection systems. The principles behind these techniques and their applications in fast assay and on-line process monitoring are reviewed and discussed. Selected major advances in this research field are outlined.
Sample preparation Sample preparation Dialysis Pervaporation Review Online digestion Microwave

"An Overview Of Recent Expert System Applications In Analytical Chemistry"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1996 Volume 26, Issue 4 Pages 219-237
Miguel Peris

Abstract: A review is presented with references to the most important work dealing with the applications of artificial intelligence (expert systems, knowledge-based systems) in both qualitative and quantitative analytical chemistry. Contributions from January 1990 to date are briefly described together with some reviews and monographs on this matter. Topics covered include instrumental analysis, especially spectroscopy and chromatography, data management, chemometrics, process automation, and spectrum interpretation.
Immunoassay Chemometrics Review

"Recent Developments In Flow Injection Immunoanalysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1996 Volume 26, Issue 4 Pages 195-218
R. Puchades; A. Maquieira

Abstract: Flow injection coupled to immunoassays (FIIA) is a powerful tool for the development of analytical protocols and has been applied in fields other than clinical. This article presents new FIIA contributions in areas such as biology, environmental, bioprocess monitoring for on-line applications or drugs. The development of FIIA methods using different labels, liposomes, immunoreagents, or immunosensors is reviewed. Finally, new trends in FIIA and the feasibility of using other techniques, such as high-performance immunoaffinity chromatography (HPIC) or capillary electrophoresis (CE) are also taken into account.
Immunoassay Chromatography Review

"A Model For Mechanism Of Peroxyoxalate Chemiluminescence As Applied To Detection In Liquid-chromatography"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1996 Volume 26, Issue 1 Pages 1-27
György Orosz,* Richard S. Givens, and Richard L. Schowen

Abstract: In recent years, a substantial body of knowledge has been accummulated on the mechanism of peroxyoxalate chemiluminescence (PO-CL). Formal mechanisms have been reported previously by the authors and others purporting to account for the effects of variation of the primary reagents (concentration of oxalate, hydrogen peroxide, and fluorophore) on the peroxyoxalate induced detection of analytes in liquid chromatography and flow injection analyzes. In this article, new pathways are suggested also for the induced decomposition of the chemiluminescent intermediate, including: (a) its reaction with a quencher, and (b) its reaction with hydrogen peroxide. Quantitative relationships are derived and established for the effect of pH on the maximum light intensity and the rate of the light decay. The parameters extracted from the experimental data are utilized to predict the influence of reagent concentrations and flow rates on the chemiluminescent detector response. In contrast to the Linearity of the relationships in the static solution studies, significant nonlinearities are presented, based on simulations of experimental conditions for flow systems. Among the several conclusions reached, the most important is that the location of the maximum chemiluminescent response in flow systems may not be accomplished by simply determining the optimal values for the individual parameters.
Chemiluminescence LC

"Recent Advances In Pharmaceutical Analysis With Potentiometric Membrane Sensors"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1993 Volume 24, Issue 1 Pages 1-58
Vasile V. Cosofre; Richard P. Buck

Abstract: A review is presented, with 132 references, on the use of ion-selective electrodes in pharmaceutical analysis. The combination of membrane sensors with FIA is discussed and details are given of the fabrication of electrodes for the determination of numerous drugs and compounds of biological interest (e.g., amino-acids, alkaloids).
Pharmaceutical Potentiometry Sensor Membrane Review

"Gas Diffusion - Permeation Flow Injection Analysis. 1. Principles And Instrumentation"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1992 Volume 23, Issue 5 Pages 323-354
Vlastimil Kubán

Abstract: A review is presented, with 109 references, of the application of gas diffusion - permeation flow injection analysis (GDP FIA) in the separation and/or pre-concentration. of gases, gas-evolving species and volatile inorganic and organic substances. Principles of the technique and factors influencing transmembrane transport are described. Different configurations of FIA manifolds for stopped-flow, closed-loop and continuous-flow arrangements are discussed, as are designs for principal instrumental modules, characteristics of different semi-permeable membranes and special arrangements of detection systems. A review with 109 references. Gas diffusion/permeation techniques involving different membrane interphases or an open fluid/fluid interface are presented as powerful tools for separation and/or pre-concentration of a variety of classes of analytes, i.e., gases, gas-evolving species, volatile inorganic and organic substances, etc., from gaseous, aquatic, or organic sample matrixes. Principles of the techniques and factors influencing transmembrane transport, such as acidity of the donor and the acceptor streams, their flow rates, membrane characteristics, temp., pressure, etc., are described. Different configurations of flow injection analysis manifolds for stopped-flow, closed-loop, and continuous-flow arrangements, designs of principal instrumental modules, characteristics of different semipermeable membranes, and special arrangements of detection systems are outlined.
Gas diffusion Review Preconcentration Stopped-flow Closed loop Optimization Membrane

"Comprehensive Overview On The Application Of Flow Injection Techniques In Immunoanalysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1992 Volume 23, Issue 4 Pages 301-321
R. Puchades; A. Maquieira; J. Atienza; A. Montoya

Abstract: A review is presented, with 94 references, on the application of flow injection techniques in immunoanalysis. Recent developments and new trends in flow injection immunoanalysis, such as immunosensors, are also discussed. A review and discussion with 94 references on the applications of flow injection techniques in immunoanalysis as well as examples of various immunoanalysis formats commonly employed to visualize the primary antibody-antigen reaction. Recent developments and new trends in the field of flow injection coupled to immunoassays, such as immunosensors, are also considered.
Immunoassay Review

"Environmental Chemistry: The Immunoassay Option"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1992 Volume 23, Issue 4 Pages 217-300
J. P. Sherry; Raymond E. Clement

Abstract: A review is presented, with 392 references, on immunoassay screening techniques for the detection of a broad variety of environmental pollutants, including, pesticides, PCB and other industrial contaminants. Sample preparation, validation and routine applications, and the future prospects of the technique are discussed. Ways to increase assay sensitivity are also described. Related technologies, including immunoaffinity chromatography, immunosensor probes and flow injection immunoanalysis, and multi-analyte immunoassays are also reviewed.
Environmental Immunoassay Review

"Simultaneous Determination Of Several Components By Flow Injection Analysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1992 Volume 23, Issue 1-2 Pages 15-53
Vlastimil Kubán

Abstract: A review is presented, with 171 references, of the simultaneous determination of multiple components by flow injection analysis (MC FIA) with a single detector (single or multi-channel) or with several detectors, in series or in parallel. Techniques involving liquid - liquid extraction, membrane separation, packed micro-column reactors and immobilized enzyme reactors are described. The use of MC FIA for the simultaneous determination or speciation of metal ions, inorganic anions and organic compounds is also discussed. A review with 171 references is given on the simultaneous determination of multiple components by the flow injection technique (MC-FIA) in various configurations with a single detector (single or multichannel), or with several detectors in series or in parallel. Exclusive instrumental modules, i.e., multifunctional valves, special detectors, and their combinations are discussed. Special techniques employing liquid-liquid extraction, membrane separation, packed microcolumn reactors, immobilized enzyme reactors, etc. are discussed. The applicability of MC-FIA in the simultaneous determination and speciation of metal ions, inorganic anions, and organic compounds in diverse samples is discussed.
Simultaneous analysis Review Multicomponent Immobilized enzyme Speciation

"Flow Injection Analysis Of Seawater. 2. Cationic Species"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1992 Volume 23, Issue 1-2 Pages 1-14
J. Atienza; M. A. Herrero; A. Maquieira; R. Puchades

Abstract: A review is presented, with 78 references. A summary of flow injection methods proposed for the determination of cationic species, viz., ammonia, alkaline-earth cations and trace elements, in seawater is given in tabular form and includes details of calibration ranges, detection limits, coefficient of variation and sampling frequencies (h-1). A review, with 78 references is given. Flow injection analysis (FIA) can provide a simple and versatile tool to determine metal cations in seawater. The use of FIA techniques coupled with online sample pre-concentration and matrix modification has recently attracted considerable research effort in attempts to control interference effects. The most common active agents used for sample pre-concentration are chelating resins of different types. The combination of FIA with detection techniques, such as atomic spectroscopy, for the determination of cationic species in the general context of seawater anal. is discussed.
Cations Sea Review Interferences

"Liquid - Liquid Extraction Flow Injection Analysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1991 Volume 22, Issue 6 Pages 477-557
Vlastimil Kubán

Abstract: In spite of the great improvement in selectivity and sensitivity of modern analytical instrumentation, the classical pre-concentration and separation techniques, such as liquid-liquid extraction, ion-exchange chromatography, precipitation, etc., are still widely used to improve analytical measurements, especially in connection with trace and ultratrace analysis. Liquid-liquid extraction is among the most frequently used conventional methods for sample pretreatment preceding measurements of the analyte concentration. It offers a potential for selectivity and sensitivity improvement in a large number of determinations.
Sample preparation Extraction Review

"Recent Advances In Pulse Cyclic And Square-wave Cyclic Voltammetric Analysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1991 Volume 22, Issue 5 Pages 345-380
Gordon N. Eccles

Abstract: If rapid quantitative electrochemical analysis was to evolve, the charging current that plagues electrochemical measurements had to be minimized. These currents occur when rapidly changing potentials are applied to an electrode solution interface. This initated the research of modified potential waveforms such as those used in pulse and square wave polarography. These methods have been shown to filter out much of the effect of charging current and are used extensively in routine analysis. Similarly, pulse methods coupled with cyclic voltammetry also reduce noise and analysis times and in addition provide more qualitative information. A historical review of the various techniques that reject charging current is discussed with emphasis placed on recent studies with modified cyclic voltammetry waveforms.
HPLC Polarography Voltammetry Voltammetry Voltammetry Review

"Flow Injection Analysis Of Seawater: Anionic And Organic Species"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1991 Volume 22, Issue 5 Pages 331-344
J. Atienza; M. A. Herrero; A. Maquieira; R. Puchades

Abstract: Methodology for the analysis of compounds in seawater has developed rapidly during recent years, together with a markedly increased interest in chemical data to characterize the marine environment. Flow injection analysis (FIA) can play a significant role in laboratory automation for many traditional wet chemical methods, and can serve as the basis for new methods which have no conventional analog. The FIA technique permits the analysis of a great number of samples, rapidly and reliably. This review discusses the present status and potential applications of FIA in the determination of anions and organic species in seawater analysis.
Anions Organic compounds Sea Review

"Phase Segmentation In Liquid - Liquid Extraction Continuous-flow Analysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1991 Volume 22, Issue 1-2 Pages 491-518
Vlastimil Kubán; Folke Ingman

Abstract: Several research groups have been actively designing flow systems for automatic or semiautomatic liquid-liquid extraction, most of them using air-segmented flow systems. The first application of liquid-liquid extraction in flow injection analysis (FIA) was carried out simultaneously by Karlberg et al and Bergamin et al in 1978. Since then, a large number of analytical pmcedures have been devised in combination with all common detection systems.
Sample preparation Extraction Phase separator Review Segmented flow Organic solvent

"Sample Handling And Pretreatment Using Flow Injection Analysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1990 Volume 21, Issue 5 Pages 357-375
Gregory D. Clark; David A. Whitman; Gary D. Christian; Jaromir Ruzicka; Walter L. Zielinski Jr.

Abstract: Flow injection analysis (FIA) has been demonstrated to be an ideal tool for the handling and pretreatment of samples prior to their analysis. Sample handling may be as simple as the use of FIA for the introduction of the sample into a detector or as complicated as extraction of an analyte followed by back extraction prior to reaction and detection. In this survey, it is shown that FIA can encompass a large diversity of sample handling and pretreatment techniques. By employing FIA methods, one is able to significantly increase the sample throughput and, in many cases, increase the overall precision compared with batch style sampling, pretreatment, and analysis schemes. FIA sample handling and pretreatment techniques reviewed here include injection, dilution, membrane techniques, solvent extraction, and sorbent extraction/pre-concentration.
Sample pretreatment Review

"Theoretical Backgrounds Of Flow Analysis"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1987 Volume 17, Issue 3 Pages 231-264
George Horvai; Erno Pungor

Abstract: To most workers in the field of flow analysis it appears to be self-explanatory that what they are doing is flow analysis (FA), and they will easily quote many advantages of their system. Nevertheless, it is not easy to properly define what flow analysis is. Even more difficult is defending its advantages against other semiautomatic or automatic analysis methods, in general, because of the wide variety and the fast development of both FA and other instrumentation. A very broad definition of FA might be that in flow analysis the transport of the sample from the place of sampling to the waste (or back to the sampling area in case of recirculation) through stages of various kinds of manipulation like separation, chemical reaction, heating or cooling, detection, etc. is done by imparting the sample or an aliquot of it into a flowing stream. The flow moves the sample through the spatially separated stages of the analysis process in an automatic way. (87 references).
Electrode Theory Review

"Automatic Electrochemical Analysis: 2"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1983 Volume 14, Issue 3 Pages 175-230
Erno Pungor; Zsofia Fehaer; Geza Nagy; Klara Toth

Abstract: UFL
Electrode Electrode Potentiometry Automation Theory

"Automatic Electrochemical Analysis: 1"
Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1983 Volume 14, Issue 1 Pages 53-91
Erno Pungor; Zsofia Fehaer; Geza Nagy; Klara Toth

Abstract: UFL
Potentiometry Voltammetry Automation Review Theory